Western Philosophy 19th-century philosophy
G. In the 18th century the philosophies of The Enlightenment began to have a dramatic effect the landmark works of philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Jean-Jacques W. F. Hegel
Name	Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel
Birth	August 27, 1770 (Stuttgart, Germany)
Death	November 14, 1831 (aged 61) (Berlin, Germany)
School/tradition	German Idealism; Founder of Hegelianism
Main interests	Logic, Philosophy of history, Aesthetics, Religion, Metaphysics, Epistemology, Political Science,
Notable ideas	Absolute idealism, Dialectic, Sublation
Influenced by	Aristotle, Heraclitus, Anselm, Descartes, Goethe, Spinoza, Rousseau, Böhme, Kant, Fichte, Hölderlin, Schelling
Influenced	Adorno, Barth, Bauer, Bookchin, Bradley, Breton, Croce, Danto, Deleuze, Dilthey, Emerson, Engels, Feuerbach, Fukuyama, Gadamer, Gentile, Habermas, Heidegger, Ilyenkov, Kierkegaard, Kojève, Koyré, Küng, Lacan, Lenin, Lukács, Marcuse, Marx, Moltmann, O'Donoghue, Sartre, Stirner, Charles Taylor, Žižek

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (IPA: [ˈgeɔʁk ˈvɪlhɛlm ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈhegəl]) (August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher, and with Johann Gottlieb Fichte and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, one of the creators of German idealism. Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan Year 1770 ( MDCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Friday Stuttgart (ˈʃtʊtgaɐ̯t is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Year 1831 ( MDCCCXXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. German idealism was a philosophical movement in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries Hegelianism is a Philosophy developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel which can be summed up by Hegel's "the Rational alone is real" which means Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems Absolute idealism is an ontologically Monistic philosophy attributed to G In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Sublation is an English term used to translate Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's German term Aufhebung. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Heraclitus of Ephesus ( Ancient Greek: &mdash grc-Latn ''Hērákleitos ho Ephésios'' English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca Saint Anselm of Canterbury (1033 &ndash April 21, 1109) was an Italian medieval Philosopher, theologian, and church official ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Jakob Böhme (probably April 24 1575 &ndash November 17 1624) was a German Christian mystic and Theologian Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin (ˈjoːhan ˈkrɪstiaːn ˈfriːdrɪç 'hœldərliːn in German March 20, 1770 &ndash June 6, 1843 Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling ( January 27, 1775 – August 20, 1854) later von Schelling, was a German Philosopher Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno ( September 11, 1903 &ndash August 6, 1969) was a German -born international sociologist Karl Barth ( May 10, 1886 &ndash December 10, 1968) (pronounced "bart" a Swiss Reformed theologian was one Bruno Bauer ( September 6, 1809 – April 13, 1882) was a German theologian, Philosopher and Historian Murray Bookchin ( January 14, 1921 – July 30, 2006) was an American libertarian socialist, political and social Francis Herbert Bradley ( 30 January, 1846 &ndash 18 September, 1924) was a British idealist Philosopher. André Breton (in French ɑ̃dʀe bʀəˈtɔ̃ ( February 19, 1896 &ndash September 28, 1966) was a French Writer, Benedetto Croce ( February 25, 1866 – November 20, 1952) was an Italian critic idealist Philosopher, and Arthur Coleman Danto (born 1924 is an American Art critic, and Professor of Philosophy. Gilles Deleuze ( (January 18 1925 &ndash November 4 1995 was a French philosopher of the late 20th century Wilhelm Dilthey (ˈdɪltaɪ November 19, 1833 &ndash October 1, 1911) was a German Historian, Psychologist Ralph Waldo Emerson (May 25 1803 &ndash April 27 1882 was an American essayist philosopher poet and leader of the Transcendentalist movement in the early 19th century Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895 was a German social scientist and philosopher, who Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach ( July 28, 1804 &ndash September 13, 1872) was a German Philosopher and Anthropologist Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama (born 27 October 1952) is an American Philosopher, political economist, and author Hans-Georg Gadamer (ˈgaːdamɐ February 11, 1900 &ndash March 13, 2002) was a German Philosopher of the continental Giovanni Gentile (dʒoˈvɑnni dʒenˈtile May 30, 1875 April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo- Hegelian Idealist Jürgen Habermas (ˈjʏʁgən ˈhaːbɐmaːs born June 18, 1929 is a German Philosopher and Sociologist in the tradition of Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Evald Vassilievich Ilyenkov ( 18 February 1924 &mdash 21 March 1979) was a Marxist Author and renowned Soviet philosopher Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Alexandre Kojève (Russian Александр Владимирович Кожевников Aleksandr Vladimirovič Koževnikov; April 28 1902 &ndash Alexandre Koyré ( August 29, 1892, Taganrog &ndash April 28, 1964, Paris) sometimes anglicised as Alexander Hans Küng (born March 19, 1928 in Sursee, Canton of Lucerne) is a Catholic Priest, a Swiss theologian and Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst György Lukács (pronounced in IPA dyɶrdyə ˈlukɑtʃ) ( April 13, 1885 – June 4, 1971) was a Hungarian Herbert Marcuse ( July 19, 1898 &ndash July 29, 1979) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a member of Jürgen Moltmann (born April 8, 1926) is a German Protestant theologian. John O'Donohue ( 1 January 1956 &ndash 3 January 2008) was a Poet and Hegelian philosopher from County Clare, Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Johann Kaspar Schmidt ( October 25, 1806 – June 26, 1856) better known as Max Stirner (the Nom de plume Charles Margrave Taylor (born November 5, 1931) CC GOQ MA DPhil FRSC is a Philosopher from Slavoj Žižek (ˈslavoj ˈʒiʒɛk (born 21 March 1949) is a Post-Marxist Sociologist, Philosopher, and Cultural critic Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan Year 1770 ( MDCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Friday Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca Year 1831 ( MDCCCXXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling ( January 27, 1775 – August 20, 1854) later von Schelling, was a German Philosopher German idealism was a philosophical movement in Germany in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries

Hegel influenced writers of widely varying positions, including both his admirers (Bauer, Marx, Bradley, Sartre, Küng), and his detractors (Schelling, Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Russell). Bruno Bauer ( September 6, 1809 – April 13, 1882) was a German theologian, Philosopher and Historian Francis Herbert Bradley ( 30 January, 1846 &ndash 18 September, 1924) was a British idealist Philosopher. Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Hans Küng (born March 19, 1928 in Sursee, Canton of Lucerne) is a Catholic Priest, a Swiss theologian and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling ( January 27, 1775 – August 20, 1854) later von Schelling, was a German Philosopher Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Hegel discussed a relation between nature and freedom, immanence and transcendence, and the unification of these dualities without eliminating either pole or reducing it to the other. Immanence, derived from the Latin in manere "to remain within" refers to philosophical and metaphysical theories of the divine as existing and acting within the mind In Philosophy, the adjective transcendental and the noun transcendence convey three different but related primary meanings all of them derived from the word's literal His influential conceptions are of speculative logic or "dialectic," "absolute idealism," "Spirit," the "Master/Slave" dialectic, "ethical life," and the importance of history. For Master/Slave in computing, see Master-slave (computers The Master-Slave Dialectic ( Herrschaft und Knechtschaft in

Life

Early years: 1770-1801

Childhood in Stuttgart

Hegel was born on August 27, 1770 in Stuttgart, in the Duchy of Württemberg in southwestern Germany. Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan Year 1770 ( MDCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Monday (see link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting on Friday Stuttgart (ˈʃtʊtgaɐ̯t is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. Württemberg, formerly known as Wirtemberg, is an area and a former state in Swabia, a region in southwestern Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Christened Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, he was known as Wilhelm to his close family. His father, Georg Ludwig, was Rentkammersekretär (secretary to the revenue office) at the court of Karl Eugen, Duke of Württemberg. Karl Eugen Duke of Württemberg ( 11 February 1728 &ndash 24 October 1793) was the eldest son of Duke Karl I Alexander and Maria ^[1] Hegel's mother, Maria Magdalena Louisa (née Fromm), was the daughter of a lawyer at the High Court of Justice at the Württemberg court. She died when Hegel was thirteen of a "bilious fever" (Gallenfieber) which Hegel and his father also caught but narrowly survived. ^[2] Hegel had a sister, Christiane Luise (1773-1832), and a brother, Georg Ludwig (1776-1812), who was to perish as an officer in Napoleon's Russian campaign of 1812. ^[3]

At the age of three Hegel went to the "German School". When he entered the "Latin School" aged five, he already knew the first declension, having been taught it by his mother.

In 1784 Hegel entered Stuttgart's Gymnasium Illustre. During his adolescence Hegel read voraciously, copying lengthy extracts in his diary. Authors he read include the poet Klopstock and writers associated with the Enlightenment such as Christian Garve and Gotthold Ephraim Lessing. Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (ˈklɔpʃtɔk July 2, 1724 &ndash March 14, 1803) was a German Poet. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Christian Garve ( January 7, 1742 in Breslau (now Wrocław Poland – December 1, 1798 in Breslau was one of the best-known philosophers Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ( 22 January, 1729 15 February, 1781) was a German Writer, Philosopher, Dramatist Hegel's studies at the Gymnasium were concluded with his Abiturrede ("graduation speech") entitled "The abortive state of art and scholarship in Turkey. "

Student in Tübingen (1788-93)

At the age of eighteen Hegel entered the Tübinger Stift (a Protestant seminary attached to the University of Tübingen), where two fellow students were to become vital to his development—his exact contemporary, the poet Friedrich Hölderlin, and the younger brilliant philosopher-to-be Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling. Tübinger Stift is a hall of residence and teaching of the Protestant Church in Württemberg, located in the university city of Tübingen. Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen ( German: Eberhard Karls Universität Tübingen, sometimes called the "Eberhardina Carolina" is a public university Johann Christian Friedrich Hölderlin (ˈjoːhan ˈkrɪstiaːn ˈfriːdrɪç 'hœldərliːn in German March 20, 1770 &ndash June 6, 1843 Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling ( January 27, 1775 – August 20, 1854) later von Schelling, was a German Philosopher Sharing a dislike for what they regarded as the restrictive environment of the Seminary, the three became close friends and mutually influenced each other's ideas. They watched the unfolding of the French Revolution with shared enthusiasm. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Schelling and Hölderlin immersed themselves in theoretical debates on Kantian philosophy, from which Hegel remained aloof. Hegel at this time envisaged his future as that of a Popularphilosoph, i. e. , a "man of letters" who serves to make the abstruse ideas of philosophers accessible to a wider public; his own felt need to engage critically with the central ideas of Kantianism did not come until 1800.

House tutor in Berne (1793-96) and Frankfurt (1797-1801)

Having received his theological certificate (Konsistorialexamen) from the Tübingen Seminary, Hegel became Hofmeister (house tutor) to an aristocratic family in Berne (1793-96). The city of Berne or Bern (, Berne, Berna, Romansh: Berna, Bernese German: Bärn) is the Bundesstadt ( Federal During this period he composed the text which has become known as the "Life of Jesus" and a book-length manuscript entitled "The Positivity of the Christian Religion". His relations with his employers having become strained, Hegel gladly accepted an offer mediated by Hölderlin to take up a similar position with a wine merchant's family in Frankfurt, where he moved in 1797. Here Hölderlin exerted an important influence on Hegel's thought. ^[4] In Frankfurt Hegel composed the essay "The Spirit of Christianity and Its Fate" (not published during Hegel's lifetime).

Jena, Bamberg and Nuremberg: 1801-1816

Early university career in Jena (1801-1807)

In 1801 Hegel came to Jena with the encouragement of his old friend Schelling, who was Extraordinary Professor at the University there. Jena (pronunciation ˈjeːna is a university City in central Germany on the river Saale. Friedrich Schiller University of Jena (FSU is located in Jena, Thuringia in Germany and was renamed for the German writer Friedrich Schiller Hegel secured a position at the University as a Privatdozent (unsalaried lecturer) after submitting a Habilitationsschrift (dissertation) on the orbits of the planets. Private docent (abbreviates PD or Priv-Doz) is a title conferred in some European university systems especially in German -speaking countries Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries Later in the year Hegel's first book, The Difference between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy, appeared. He lectured on "Logic and Metaphysics" and, with Schelling, gave joint lectures on an "Introduction to the Idea and Limits of True Philosophy" and held a "Philosophical Disputorium". In 1802 Schelling and Hegel founded a journal, the Kritische Journal der Philosophie ("Critical Journal of Philosophy") to which they each contributed pieces until the collaboration was ended by Schelling's departure for Würzburg in 1803. Würzburg (ˈvʏɐ̯ʦbʊɐ̯k is a city in the region of Franconia which lies in the northern tip of Bavaria, Germany

In 1805 the University promoted Hegel to the position of Extraordinary Professor (unsalaried), after Hegel wrote a letter to the poet and minister of culture Johann Wolfgang von Goethe protesting at the promotion of his philosophical adversary Jakob Friedrich Fries ahead of him. ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer Jakob Friedrich Fries ( August 23, 1773 &ndash August 10, 1843) was a German Philosopher from Barby. ^[5] Hegel attempted to enlist the help of the poet and translator Johann Heinrich Voß to obtain a post at the newly renascent University of Heidelberg, but failed; to his chagrin, Fries was later in the same year made Ordinary Professor (salaried) there. Johann Heinrich Voss (Johann Heinrich Voß ˈfɔs 20 February, 1751 &ndash 29 March, 1826) was a German - Obotrite The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg ( University of Heidelberg, Ruperto Carola, Heidelberg University, or simply Heidelberg) is a ^[6]

His finances drying up quickly, Hegel was now under great pressure to deliver his book, the long-promised introduction to his System. Hegel was putting the finishing touches to this book, now called the Phenomenology of Mind, as Napoleon engaged Prussian troops on October 14, 1806, in the Battle of Jena on a plateau outside the city. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 1806 ( MDCCCVI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The twin battles of Jena and Auerstedt (older name Auerstädt were fought on October 14, 1806 on the plateau west of the river Saale On the day before the battle, Napoleon entered the city of Jena. Hegel recounted his impressions in a letter to his friend Friedrich Immanuel Niethammer:

I saw the Emperor – this world-soul – riding out of the city on reconnaissance. It is indeed a wonderful sensation to see such an individual, who, concentrated here at a single point, astride a horse, reaches out over the world and masters it [. . . ] this extraordinary man, whom it is impossible not to admire. ^[7]

Although Napoleon chose not to close down Jena as he had other universities, the city was devastated and students deserted the university in droves, making Hegel's financial prospects even worse. The following February Hegel's landlady Christiana Burkhardt (who had been abandoned by her husband) gave birth to their son Georg Ludwig Friedrich Fischer (1807-31). ^[8]

Newspaper editor in Bamberg (1807-08) and headmaster in Nuremberg (1808-15)

In March 1807 Hegel moved to Bamberg, where Niethammer had declined and passed on to Hegel an offer to become editor of a newspaper, the Bamberger Zeitung. Bamberg is a town in Bavaria, Germany. It is located in Upper Franconia on the river Regnitz, close to its confluence with the river Main Hegel, unable to find more suitable employment, reluctantly accepted. Ludwig Fischer and his mother (whom Hegel may have offered to marry following the death of her husband) stayed behind in Jena. ^[9]

He was then, in November 1808, again through Niethammer, appointed headmaster of a Gymnasium in Nuremberg, a post he held until 1816. Here Hegel adapted his recently published Phenomenology of Mind for use in the classroom. Part of his remit being to teach a class called "Introduction to Knowledge of the Universal Coherence of the Sciences," Hegel developed the idea of an encyclopedia of the philosophical sciences, falling into three parts (logic, philosophy of nature, and philosophy of spirit). ^[10]

Hegel married Marie Helena Susanna von Tucher (1791-1855), the eldest daughter of a Senator, in 1811. This period saw the publication of his second major work, the Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik; 3 vols. , 1812, 1813, 1816), and the birth of his two legitimate sons, Karl Friedrich Wilhelm (1813-1901) and Immanuel Thomas Christian (1814-1891).

Professor in Heidelberg and Berlin: 1816-1831

Heidelberg (1816-18)

Having received offers of a post from the Universities of Erlangen, Berlin, and Heidelberg, Hegel chose Heidelberg, where he moved in 1816. History The university was founded in 1742 in Bayreuth by Frederick Margrave of Bayreuth, and moved to Erlangen in 1743 The Ruprecht Karl University of Heidelberg ( University of Heidelberg, Ruperto Carola, Heidelberg University, or simply Heidelberg) is a Soon after, in April 1817, his illegitimate son Ludwig Fischer (now ten years old) joined the Hegel household, having thus far spent his childhood in an orphanage. ^[11] (Ludwig's mother had died in the meantime. )^[12]

Hegel published The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sentences in Outline (1817) as a summary of his philosophy for students attending his lectures at Heidelberg.

Berlin (1818-31)

Hegel with students Lithograph by F. Kugler

In 1818 Hegel accepted the renewed offer of the chair of philosophy at the University of Berlin, which had remained vacant since Fichte's death in 1814. Here he published his Elements of the Philosophy of Right (1821). Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's Elements of the Philosophy of Right ( Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) was published in 1820, though the Hegel's efforts were primarily directed at delivering his lectures; his lecture courses on aesthetics, the philosophy of religion, the philosophy of history, and the history of philosophy were published posthumously from lecture notes taken by his students. His fame spread and his lectures attracted students from all over Germany and beyond.

Hegel was appointed Rector of the University in 1830. He was deeply disturbed by the riots for reform in Berlin in that year. In 1831 Frederick William III decorated him for his service to the Prussian state. Early life The son of King Frederick William II of Prussia, Frederick William was born in Potsdam and became Crown Prince in 1786 when his father ascended In August 1831 a cholera epidemic reached Berlin and Hegel left the city, taking up lodgings in Kreuzberg. Year 1831 ( MDCCCXXXI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium Kreuzberg, since 2001 part of the combined Friedrichshain-Kreuzberg borough located south of Mitte, is one of the best-known areas of Berlin Now in a weak state of health, Hegel went out little. As the new semester began in October, Hegel returned to Berlin, with the (mistaken) impression that the epidemic had largely subsided. By November 14 Hegel was dead. Events 1533 - Conquistadors from Spain under the leadership of Francisco Pizarro arrive in Cajamarca, Inca The physicians pronounced the cause of death as cholera, but it is more likely he died from a gastrointestinal disease. ^[13] He is said to have uttered the last words "And he didn't understand me" before expiring. ^[14] In accordance with his wishes, Hegel was buried on November 16 in the Dorotheenstadt Cemetery next to Fichte and Solger. Events 534 - A second and final revision of the Codex Justinianus is published Karl Wilhelm Ferdinand Solger ( 28 November 1780 &ndash 20 October 1819) was a German Philosopher and academic from

Hegel's son Ludwig Fischer had died shortly before while serving with the Dutch army in Jakarta; the news of his death never reached his father. Jakarta (also DKI Jakarta) is the Capital and largest city of Indonesia. ^[15] Early the following year Hegel's sister Christiane committed suicide by drowning. Hegel's sons Karl, who became a historian, and Immanuel, who followed a theological path, lived long lives during which they safeguarded their father's Nachlaß and produced editions of his works.

Works

Hegel published only four books during his life: the Phenomenology of Spirit (or Phenomenology of Mind), his account of the evolution of consciousness from sense-perception to absolute knowledge, published in 1807; the Science of Logic, the logical and metaphysical core of his philosophy, in three volumes, published in 1811, 1812, and 1816 (revised 1831); Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences, a summary of his entire philosophical system, which was originally published in 1816 and revised in 1827 and 1830; and the Elements of the Philosophy of Right, his political philosophy, published in 1822. Phänomenologie des Geistes ( 1807) is one of GWF Hegel 's most important philosophical works Hegel 's work The Science of Logic outlined his vision of Logic, which is an ontology that incorporates the traditional Aristotelian Syllogism Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Year 1812 ( MDCCCXII) a leap year started on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (in German Encyclopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse) ( 1817) is a systematic work by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's Elements of the Philosophy of Right ( Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) was published in 1820, though the In the latter, he criticized von Haller's reactionary work, which claimed that laws were not necessary. Karl Ludwig von Haller (born August 1 1768 in Bern; died May 20 1854 in Solothurn) was a Swiss Jurist He also published some articles early in his career and during his Berlin period. A number of other works on the philosophy of history, religion, aesthetics, and the history of philosophy were compiled from the lecture notes of his students and published posthumously. Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Philosophy of religion is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the philosophical study of religion including arguments over the nature and existence of God religious Aesthetics or esthetics ( also spelled æsthetics) is commonly known as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values sometimes called The history of Philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time

Hegel's Grave in Berlin

Hegel's works have a reputation for their difficulty and for the breadth of the topics they attempt to cover. Hegel introduced a system for understanding the history of philosophy and the world itself, often described as a progression in which each successive movement emerges as a solution to the contradictions inherent in the preceding movement. The history of Philosophy is the study of philosophical ideas and concepts through time For example, the French Revolution for Hegel constitutes the introduction of real individual political freedom into European societies for the first time in recorded history. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression But precisely because of its absolute novelty, it is also absolutely radical: on the one hand the upsurge of violence required to carry out the revolution cannot cease to be itself, while on the other, it has already consumed its opponent. The revolution therefore has nowhere to turn but onto its own result: the hard-won freedom is consumed by a brutal Reign of Terror. Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was History, however, progresses by learning from its mistakes: only after and precisely because of this experience can one posit the existence of a constitutional state of free citizens, embodying both the benevolent organizing power of rational government and the revolutionary ideals of freedom and equality. A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Hegel's remarks on the French revolution led German poet Heinrich Heine to label him "The Orléans of German Philosophy". Christian Johann Heinrich Heine ( December 13, 1797 – February 17, 1856) was a Journalist, Essayist and one of the The Orléanists were a French Right-wing / Center-right Political faction or party which arose out of the French Revolution

Hegel's writing style is difficult to read; he is described by Bertrand Russell in the History of Western Philosophy as the single most difficult philosopher to understand. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian This is partly because Hegel tried to develop a new form of thinking and logic, which he called "speculative reason" and which includes the more famous concept of "dialectic," to try to overcome what he saw as the limitations of both common sense and of traditional philosophy at grasping philosophical problems and the relation between thought and reality. Speculative reason or pure reason is theoretical (or Logical deductive) thought (sometimes called theoretical reason as opposed to practical (active In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions

Teachings

The concept of freedom through Hegel's method

Hegel's thinking can be understood as a constructive development within the broadly Platonic tradition that includes Aristotle and Kant. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg To this list one could add Proclus, Meister Eckhart, Leibniz, Bahlsen, Spinoza, Plotinus, Jakob Boehme, and Rousseau. Meister Eckhart OP (c 1260–c 1328 is the most common formula used to refer to Eckhart von Hochheim, a German theologian Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Plotinus ( Greek:) (ca AD 204–270 was a major philosopher of the ancient world who is widely considered the founder of Neoplatonism (along with his What all these thinkers share, which distinguishes them from materialists like Epicurus, the Stoics, and Thomas Hobbes, and from empiricists like David Hume, is that they regard freedom or self-determination both as real and as having important ontological implications, for soul or mind or divinity. The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy This focus on freedom is what generates Plato's notion (in the Phaedo, Republic, and Timaeus) of the soul as having a higher or fuller kind of reality than inanimate objects possess. Plato 's Phaedo (ˈfiːdoʊ Greek: Φαίδων, Phaidon) is one of the great Dialogues of his middle period along with The Republic ( Greek: / Politeía, meaning "political system" Latin: Res Publica, meaning "public business" or Timaeus ( Greek: Τίμαιος, Timaios) is a theoretical treatise of Plato in the form of a Socratic dialogue, written The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living While Aristotle criticizes Plato's "Forms," he preserves Plato's preoccupation with the ontological implications of self-determination, in his conceptions of ethical reasoning, the hierarchy of soul in nature, the order of the cosmos, and the prime mover. Kant, likewise, preserves this preoccupation of Plato's in his notions of moral and noumenal freedom, and God. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg

In his discussion of "Spirit" in his Encyclopedia, Hegel praises Aristotle's On the Soul as "by far the most admirable, perhaps even the sole, work of philosophical value on this topic" (par. On the Soul ( Greek ( Perì Psūchês) Latin De Anima) is a major treatise by Aristotle on the nature of living things 378). And in his Phenomenology of Spirit and his Science of Logic, Hegel's concern with Kantian topics such as freedom and morality, and with their ontological implications, is pervasive. Phänomenologie des Geistes ( 1807) is one of GWF Hegel 's most important philosophical works Hegel 's work The Science of Logic outlined his vision of Logic, which is an ontology that incorporates the traditional Aristotelian Syllogism Rather than simply rejecting Kant's dualism of freedom versus nature, Hegel aims to subsume it within "true infinity," the "Concept" (or "Notion": Begriff), "Spirit," and "ethical life" in such a way that the Kantian duality is rendered intelligible (as mentioned above), rather than remaining a brute "given. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg "

The reason why this subsumption takes place in a series of concepts is that Hegel's method, in his Science of Logic and his Encyclopedia, is to begin with ultra-basic concepts like Being and Nothing, and to develop these through a long sequence of elaborations, including those mentioned in the previous paragraph. In this manner, a solution that is reached, in principle, in the account of "true infinity" in the Science of Logic's chapter on "Quality," is repeated in new guises at later stages, all the way to "Spirit" and "ethical life," in the third volume of the Encyclopedia.

In this way, Hegel intends to defend the germ of truth in Kantian dualism against reductive or eliminative programs like those of materialism and empiricism (which one can see at work in many of Hegel's critics, including Marx, Nietzsche, and Russell). Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Like Plato, with his dualism of soul versus bodily appetites, Kant wants to insist on the mind's ability to question its felt inclinations or appetites and to come up with a standard of "duty" (or, in Plato's case, "good") which goes beyond them. Hegel preserves this essential Platonic and Kantian concern in the form of infinity's going beyond the finite (a process that Hegel in fact relates to "freedom" and the "ought"^[16]), the universal's going beyond the particular (in the Concept), and Spirit's going beyond Nature. And Hegel renders these dualities intelligible by (ultimately) his argument in the "Quality" chapter of the Science of Logic that the finite has to become infinite in order to achieve "reality. " This is because, as Hegel suggests by his introduction of the concept of "reality",^[17] what determines itself rather than depending on its relations to other things for its essential character, is more fully "real" (following the Latin etymology of "real": more "thing-like") than what does not. Finite things don't determine themselves, because, as "finite" things, their essential character is determined by their boundaries, over against other finite things. So, in order to become "real," they must go beyond their finitude ("finitude is only as a transcending of itself"^[18]).

The result of this argument is that finite and infinite—and, by extension, particular and universal, nature and freedom—don't face one another as two independent realities, but instead the latter (in each case) is the self-transcending of the former. ^[19] Thus rather than being merely "given," without explanation, the relationship between finite and infinite (and particular and universal, and nature and freedom) becomes intelligible. And a challenge is issued to reductive and eliminative programs like materialism and empiricism: What kind of "reality" do your fundamental entities or data possess?

Progress through contradictions and negations

The obscure writings of Jakob Böhme had a strong effect on Hegel. Jakob Böhme (probably April 24 1575 &ndash November 17 1624) was a German Christian mystic and Theologian Böhme had written that the Fall of Man was a necessary stage in the evolution of the universe. The Fall of Man, or simply the Fall, in Christian doctrine refers to the transition of the first humans from a state of innocent obedience to God, eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy This evolution was, itself, the result of God's desire for complete self-awareness. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Hegel was fascinated by the works of Spinoza, Kant, Rousseau, and Goethe, and by the French Revolution. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Modern philosophy, culture, and society seemed to Hegel fraught with contradictions and tensions, such as those between the subject and object of knowledge, mind and nature, self and Other, freedom and authority, knowledge and faith, the Enlightenment and Romanticism. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others The Other or constitutive other (also referred to as othering) is a key concept in Continental philosophy, opposed to the Same The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the Hegel's main philosophical project was to take these contradictions and tensions and interpret them as part of a comprehensive, evolving, rational unity that, in different contexts, he called "the absolute idea" or "absolute knowledge".

According to Hegel, the main characteristic of this unity was that it evolved through and manifested itself in contradiction and negation. In Classical logic, a contradiction consists of a logical incompatibility between two or more Propositions It occurs when the propositions taken together yield In Logic and Mathematics, negation or not is an operation on Logical values for example the logical value of a Proposition Contradiction and negation have a dynamic quality that at every point in each domain of reality—consciousness, history, philosophy, art, nature, society—leads to further development until a rational unity is reached that preserves the contradictions as phases and sub-parts by lifting them up (Aufhebung) to a higher unity. Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to Sublation is an English term used to translate Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's German term Aufhebung. This whole is mental because it is mind that can comprehend all of these phases and sub-parts as steps in its own process of comprehension. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. It is rational because the same, underlying, logical, developmental order underlies every domain of reality and is ultimately the order of self-conscious rational thought, although only in the later stages of development does it come to full self-consciousness. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. The rational, self-conscious whole is not a thing or being that lies outside of other existing things or minds. Disambiguation For the Wigwam album see Being (album, for spiritual or religious beingness, see Ego (spirituality Rather, it comes to completion only in the philosophical comprehension of individual existing human minds who, through their own understanding, bring this developmental process to an understanding of itself.

(Note: “Mind” and “Spirit” are the common English translations of Hegel’s use of the German “Geist”. Geist ( German gaɪ̯st is a German word that does not translate very well into English Some have argued that either of these terms overly “psychologize” Hegel, implying a kind of disembodied, solipsistic consciousness like ghost or "soul,". A ghost is said to be the apparition of a Deceased person frequently similar in appearance to that person and usually encountered in places she or he frequented Geist combines the meaning of spirit, as in god, ghost or mind, with an intentional force. )

Central to Hegel's conception of knowledge and mind (and therefore also of reality) was the notion of identity in difference, that is that mind externalizes itself in various forms and objects that stand outside of it or opposed to it, and that, through recognizing itself in them, is "with itself" in these external manifestations, so that they are at one and the same time mind and other-than-mind. Controversy over the beginning of pregnancy usually occurs in the context of the Abortion debate Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding In Philosophy, identity (also called sameness) is whatever makes an entity definable and recognizable in terms of possessing a set of qualities or characteristics This article is about social philosophy For externalization (of cost in the context of economics see Externality. For other uses of Object see Object. In Philosophy, an object is a thing an Entity, or a Being. This notion of identity in difference, which is intimately bound up with his conception of contradiction and negativity, is a principal feature differentiating Hegel's thought from that of other philosophers.

Civil society

See also: Civil society

Hegel made the distinction between civil society and state in his Elements of the Philosophy of Right. Civil society is composed of the totality of voluntary civic and social organizations and institutions that form the basis of a functioning Society as opposed to the force-backed Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's Elements of the Philosophy of Right ( Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) was published in 1820, though the ^[20] In this work, civil society (Hegel used the term "buergerliche Gesellschaft" though it is now referred to as Zivilgesellschaft in German to emphasize a more inclusive community) was a stage on the dialectical relationship between Hegel's perceived opposites, the macro-community of the state and the micro-community of the family. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Family denotes a group of People affiliated by consanguinity affinity or co-residence ^[21] Broadly speaking, the term was split, like Hegel's followers, to the political left and right. In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities On the left, it became the foundation for Karl Marx's bourgeois society;^[22] to the right it became a description for all non-state aspects of society, expanding out of the economic rigidity of Marxism into culture, society and politics^[23]

Influence

There are views of Hegel's thought as a representation of the summit of early 19th century Germany's movement of philosophical idealism. An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions In Western civilization, Idealism is the philosophy which maintains that the Ultimate nature of reality is ideal or based upon ideas values essences The so-called It would come to have a profound impact on many future philosophical schools, including schools that opposed Hegel's specific dialectical idealism, such as Existentialism, the historical materialism of Karl Marx, historicism, and British Idealism. Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence Historical materialism is the methodological approach to the study of society economics and history which was first articulated by Karl Marx ( 1818 - 1883 Historicism refers to philosophical theories that include one or both of two claims that there is an organic succession of developments a notion also Absolute idealism is an ontologically Monistic philosophy attributed to G

Hegel's influence was immense both within philosophy and in the other sciences. Throughout the 19th century many chairs of philosophy around Europe were held by Hegelians, although Kierkegaard, Feuerbach, Marx, and Engels were all opposed to the most central themes of Hegel's philosophy. Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach ( July 28, 1804 &ndash September 13, 1872) was a German Philosopher and Anthropologist Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895 was a German social scientist and philosopher, who After less than a generation, Hegel's philosophy was suppressed and even banned by the Prussian right-wing, and was firmly rejected by the left-wing in multiple official writings. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities

After the period of Bruno Bauer, Hegel's influence did not make itself felt again until the philosophy of British Idealism and the 20th century Hegelian Neo-Marxism that began with Georg Lukács. Bruno Bauer ( September 6, 1809 – April 13, 1882) was a German theologian, Philosopher and Historian Absolute idealism is an ontologically Monistic philosophy attributed to G Neo-Marxism is a loose term for various Twentieth-century approaches that amend or extend Marxism and Marxist theory, usually by incorporating elements György Lukács (pronounced in IPA dyɶrdyə ˈlukɑtʃ) ( April 13, 1885 – June 4, 1971) was a Hungarian The more recent movement of communitarianism has a strong Hegelian influence, although a Hegel specialist would argue that that influence is not strong enough, since communitarianism tends toward relativism, which Hegel's philosophy does not. Communitarianism, as a group of related but distinct philosophies began in the late 20th century opposing in its opinion exalted forms of Individualism while advocating phenomena Compare Moral relativism, Aesthetic relativism, Social constructionism, Cultural relativism, and Cognitive relativism.

Hegel's legacy (interpretation)

Reading Hegel

Some of Hegel's writing was intended for those with advanced knowledge of philosophy, although his "Encyclopedia" was intended as a textbook in a university course. A textbook is a manual of instruction or a standard book in any branch of study A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects In US Education, a course is a unit of teaching that typically lasts one Academic term, is led by one or more instructors ( Teachers or Professors Nevertheless, like many philosophers, Hegel assumed that his readers would be well-versed in Western philosophy, up to and including Descartes, Spinoza, Hume, Kant, Fichte, and Schelling. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher For those wishing to read his work without this background, introductions to and commentaries about Hegel can contribute to comprehension, although the reader is faced with multiple interpretations of Hegel's writings from incompatible schools of philosophy. The German philosopher Theodor W. Adorno devoted an essay to the difficulty of reading Hegel and asserted that there are certain passages where it is impossible to decipher what Hegel meant. Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno ( September 11, 1903 &ndash August 6, 1969) was a German -born international sociologist Difficulties within Hegel's language and thought are magnified for those reading Hegel in translation, since his philosophical language and terminology in German often do not have direct analogues in other languages. For example, the German word "Geist" has connotations of both "mind" and "spirit" in English. English translators have to use the "phenomenology of mind" or "the phenomenology of spirit" to render Hegel's "Phaenomenologie des Geistes", thus altering the original meaning. Hegel himself argued, in his "Science of Logic", that the German language specially lent itself to philosophical thought and writing.

One especially difficult aspect of Hegel's work is his innovation in logic. In response to Immanuel Kant's challenge to the limits of Pure Reason, Hegel developed a radically new form of logic, which he called speculation, and which is today popularly called dialectics. The Critique of Pure Reason (Kritik der reinen Vernunft by Immanuel Kant, first published in 1781, second edition 1787, is one In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions The difficulty in reading Hegel was perceived in Hegel's own day, and persists into the 21st century. To understand Hegel fully requires paying attention to his critique of standard logic, such as the law of contradiction and the law of the excluded middle, and, whether one accepts or rejects it, at least taking it seriously. This article uses forms of logical notation For a concise description of the symbols used in this notation see Table of logic symbols. Many philosophers who came after Hegel and were influenced by him, whether adopting or rejecting his ideas, did so without fully absorbing his new speculative or dialectical logic.

If one wanted to provide a big piece of the Hegel puzzle to the beginner, one might present the following statement from Part One of the Encyclopedia of Philosophical Sciences: The Logic:

". . .  a much misunderstood phenomenon in the history of philosophy — the refutation of one system by another, of an earlier by a later. Most commonly the refutation is taken in a purely negative sense to mean that the system refuted has ceased to count for anything, has been set aside and done for. Were it so, the history of philosophy would be, of all studies, most saddening, displaying, as it does, the refutation of every system which time has brought forth. Now although it may be admitted that every philosophy has been refuted, it must be in an equal degree maintained that no philosophy has been refuted. And that in two ways. For first, every philosophy that deserves the name always embodies the Idea: and secondly, every system represents one particular factor or particular stage in the evolution of the Idea. The refutation of a philosophy, therefore, only means that its barriers are crossed, and its special principle reduced to a factor in the completer principle that follows"

Left and Right Hegelianism

Another confusing aspect about the interpretation of Hegel's work is the fact that past historians have spoken of Hegel's influence as represented by two opposing camps. The Right Hegelians, the allegedly direct disciples of Hegel at the Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universität (now known as the Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin), advocated a Protestant orthodoxy and the political conservatism of the post-Napoleon Restoration period. The Right Hegelians, Old Hegelians, or the Hegelian Right, were the followers of German philosopher Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel who took his For other universities in Berlin see List of Universities in Berlin. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Left Hegelians, also known as the Young Hegelians, interpreted Hegel in a revolutionary sense, leading to an advocation of atheism in religion and liberal democracy in politics. Young Hegelians, or Left Hegelians, were a group of Prussian intellectuals writing in the decade or so after the death of Georg Wilhelm Hegel in 1833 and responding Atheism The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of

In more recent studies, however, this old paradigm has been questioned. For one thing, no Hegelians of the period ever referred to themselves as Right Hegelians. That was a term of insult that David Strauss (a self-styled Left Hegelian) hurled at Bruno Bauer (who has most often been classified by historians as a Left Hegelian, but who rejected both titles for himself). David Friedrich Strauss (or Strauß; January 27 1808 &ndash February 8 1874 was a German theologian and writer Bruno Bauer ( September 6, 1809 – April 13, 1882) was a German theologian, Philosopher and Historian For another thing, no so-called "Left Hegelian" described himself as a follower of Hegel. This includes Moses Hess as well as Karl Marx. Moses (Moshe Hess ( June 21, 1812 – April 6, 1875) was a secular Jewish philosopher and one of the founders of Socialism Several "Left Hegelians" openly repudiated or insulted the legacy of Hegel's philosophy. The critiques of Hegel offered from the "Left Hegelians" radically diverted Hegel's thinking into new directions—and form a disproportionately large part of the literature on and about Hegel.

Perhaps the main reason that so much writing about Hegel emerges from the so-called Left-Hegelians is that the Left-Hegelians spawned Marxism, which inspired a global movement lasting more than 150 years, encompassing the Russian Revolution, the Chinese Revolution and even more national-liberation movements of the 20th century. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. 'For the full story of the war that led to the Communist seizure of power on Mainland China, see Chinese Civil War. Yet that isn't, to be precise, any direct result of Hegel's philosophy.

20th century interpretations of Hegel were mostly shaped by one-sided schools of thought: British Idealism, logical positivism, Marxism, Fascism and postmodernism. Absolute idealism is an ontologically Monistic philosophy attributed to G Logical positivism (later and more accurately called logical empiricism) is a school of philosophy that combines Empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism With reference to Fascism, Italy's Giovanni Gentile ". Giovanni Gentile (dʒoˈvɑnni dʒenˈtile May 30, 1875 April 15, 1944) was an Italian neo- Hegelian Idealist . . holds the honor of having been the most rigorous neo–Hegelian in the entire history of Western philosophy and the dishonor of having been the official philosopher of Fascism in Italy. "^[24] However, since the fall of the USSR, a new wave of Hegel scholarship arose in the West, without the preconceptions of the prior schools of thought. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

Walter Jaeschke and Otto Pöggeler in Germany, as well as Peter Hodgson and Howard Kainz in America, are notable for their many contributions to post-USSR thinking about Hegel as published by the Hegel Society of America. Howard P Kainz is a professor of philosophy at Marquette University. Perhaps the most challenging publication from that source has been the new English edition of Hegel's Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion (1818-1831) which has challenged most 20th century views about Hegel.

Triads

In previous modern accounts of Hegelianism (to undergraduate classes, for example), especially those formed prior to the Hegel renaissance, Hegel's dialectic was most often characterized as a three-step process of "Thesis, antithesis, synthesis", namely, that a "thesis" (e. Although he never used the terms himself the Triad thesis antithesis synthesis is often used to describe the thought of German philosopher Georg g. the French Revolution) would cause the creation of its "antithesis" (e. g. the Reign of Terror that followed), and would eventually result in a "synthesis" (e. g. the Constitutional state of free citizens). However, Hegel used this classification only once, and he attributed the terminology to Immanuel Kant. The terminology was largely developed earlier by Johann Fichte the neo-Kantian. Johann Gottlieb Fichte ( May 19, 1762 – January 27, 1814) was a German philosopher It was spread by Heinrich Moritz Chalybäus in a popular account of Hegelian philosophy, and since then the misfit terms have stuck. What is wrong with the "thesis-antithesis-synthesis" approach is that it gives the sense that things or ideas are contradicted or opposed by things that come from outside them. To the contrary, the fundamental notion of Hegel's dialectic is that things or ideas have internal contradictions. From Hegel's point of view, analysis or comprehension of a thing or idea reveals that underneath its apparently simple identity or unity is an underlying inner contradiction. This contradiction leads to the dissolution of the thing or idea in the simple form in which it presented itself and to a higher-level, more complex thing or idea that more adequately incorporates the contradiction. The triadic form that appears in many places in Hegel (e. g. being-nothingness-becoming, immediate-mediate-concrete, abstract-negative-concrete) is about this movement from inner contradiction to higher-level integration or unification.

Believing that the traditional description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of thesis-antithesis-synthesis was mistaken, a few scholars, like Raya Dunayevskaya have attempted to discard the triadic approach altogether. Raya Dunayevskaya ( 1 May 1910 &ndash 9 June 1987) was the founder of the Philosophy of Marxist Humanism in the United According to their argument, although Hegel refers to "the two elemental considerations: first, the idea of freedom as the absolute and final aim; secondly, the means for realising it, i. e. the subjective side of knowledge and will, with its life, movement, and activity" (thesis and antithesis) he doesn't use "synthesis" but instead speaks of the "Whole": "We then recognised the State as the moral Whole and the Reality of Freedom, and consequently as the objective unity of these two elements. " Furthermore, in Hegel's language, the "dialectical" aspect or "moment" of thought and reality, by which things or thoughts turn into their opposites or have their inner contradictions brought to the surface, what he called "aufhebung", is only preliminary to the "speculative" (and not "synthesizing") aspect or "moment", which grasps the unity of these opposites or contradiction. Sublation is an English term used to translate Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's German term Aufhebung. Thus for Hegel, reason is ultimately "speculative", not "dialectical".

It is widely admitted today that the old-fashioned description of Hegel's philosophy in terms of "thesis-antithesis-synthesis" is inaccurate. Nevertheless, such is the persistence of this misnomer that the model and terminology survive in a number of scholarly works,

Advocates

According to J.N. Findlay, Hegel is the "Aristotle of modern times," and is, "the greatest of European thinkers, engaged in a self-critical enterprise. John Niemeyer Findlay, known as J N Findlay, ( Pretoria, 25 November 1903 – 27 September 1987) was a South African . . " (Foreword, Science of Logic, trans. 1969 by A. V. Miller).

Oswald Spengler admired Hegel, contrasting what he saw as Hegel's authentically German philosophy with what he considered Marx's foreign and fraudulent ideology. Oswald Arnold Gottfried Spengler (29 May 1880 Blankenburg am Harz &ndash 8 May 1936 Munich) was a German Historian and Philosopher whose "Hegel stands above, Marx below the level of historical actuality," Claimed Spengler, "Take away Hegel’s metaphysics and you will discover a political thinker with a sense of reality unequaled in modern philosophy. As a 'Prussian' by intellectual choice he placed the state at the center of his extraordinarily profound, well-nigh Goethean vision of historical development, whereas Marx, the Englishman by choice, assigned to the economic life the central role in his Darwinian and mechanistic theory of historical 'evolution' (he would call it 'progress'). "^[25]

In the latter half of the 20th century, Hegel's philosophy underwent a major renaissance. This was due to: (a) the rediscovery and reevaluation of Hegel as a possible philosophical progenitor of Marxism by philosophically oriented Marxists; (b) a resurgence of the historical perspective that Hegel brought to everything; and (c) an increasing recognition of the importance of his dialectical method. In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions

The book that did the most to reintroduce Hegel into the Marxist canon was perhaps Georg Lukács' History and Class Consciousness. György Lukács (pronounced in IPA dyɶrdyə ˈlukɑtʃ) ( April 13, 1885 – June 4, 1971) was a Hungarian This sparked a renewed interest in Hegel reflected in the work of Herbert Marcuse, Theodor W. Adorno, Ernst Bloch, Raya Dunayevskaya, Alexandre Kojève and Gotthard Günther among others. Herbert Marcuse ( July 19, 1898 &ndash July 29, 1979) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a member of Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno ( September 11, 1903 &ndash August 6, 1969) was a German -born international sociologist Ernst Simon Bloch (ɛʁnst ˈziːmɔn blɔx July 8, 1885 &ndash August 4, 1977) was a German Marxist philosopher Raya Dunayevskaya ( 1 May 1910 &ndash 9 June 1987) was the founder of the Philosophy of Marxist Humanism in the United Alexandre Kojève (Russian Александр Владимирович Кожевников Aleksandr Vladimirovič Koževnikov; April 28 1902 &ndash Gotthard Günther (also Gunther Guenther June 15 1900 - November 29 1984, was a German philosopher. The Hegel renaissance also highlighted the significance of Hegel's early works, i. e. those published prior to the Phenomenology of Spirit. Phänomenologie des Geistes ( 1807) is one of GWF Hegel 's most important philosophical works The direct and indirect influence of Kojève's lectures and writings (on the Phenomenology of Spirit, in particular) mean that it is not possible to understand most French philosophers from Jean-Paul Sartre to Jacques Derrida without understanding Hegel. Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French

Beginning in the 1960s, Anglo-American Hegel scholarship has attempted to challenge the traditional interpretation of Hegel as offering a metaphysical system: this has also been the approach of Z. A. Pelczynski and Shlomo Avineri. Shlomo Avineri (born in Bielsko, Poland 1933 is an Israeli Political scientist. This view, sometimes referred to as the 'non-metaphysical option', has had a decided influence on many major English language studies of Hegel in the past 40 years.

U. S. neoconservative political theorist Francis Fukuyama's controversial book The End of History and the Last Man was heavily influenced by Alexandre Kojève. Neoconservatism (or Neocon is a Right-wing political philosophy that emerged in the United States from the rejection of the Social liberalism, Moral relativism Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems Yoshihiro Francis Fukuyama (born 27 October 1952) is an American Philosopher, political economist, and author The End of History and the Last Man is a 1992 book by Francis Fukuyama, expanding on his 1989 essay "The End of History?" published in the international Among modern scientists, the physicist David Bohm, the mathematician William Lawvere, the logician Kurt Gödel and the biologist Ernst Mayr have been interested in Hegel's philosophical work. David Joseph Bohm ( December 20 1917, Wilkes-Barre Pennsylvania – October 27 1992, London) was an American Francis William Lawvere (b February 9 1937 in Muncie Indiana is a Mathematician known for his work in Category theory, topos theory and the Philosophy Kurt Gödel (kʊɐ̯t ˈgøːdl̩ (April 28 1906 – January 14 1978 was an Austrian American Logician, Mathematician and Philosopher Ernst Walter Mayr ( July 5, 1904, Kempten, Germany &ndash February 3, 2005, Bedford Massachusetts U

A late 20th century literature in Western Theology that is friendly to Hegel includes such writers as Dale M. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Schlitt (1984), Theodore Geraets (1985), Philip M. Merklinger (1991), Stephen Rocker (1995) and Cyril O'Regan (1995). The contemporary theologian Hans Küng has also advanced contemporary scholarship in Hegel studies. Hans Küng (born March 19, 1928 in Sursee, Canton of Lucerne) is a Catholic Priest, a Swiss theologian and

Recently, two prominent American philosophers, John McDowell and Robert Brandom (sometimes, half-seriously, referred to as the Pittsburgh Hegelians), have produced philosophical works exhibiting a marked Hegelian influence. John Henry McDowell (born 1942 in Boksburg, South Africa) is a Philosopher, formerly a Fellow of University College, Oxford Robert Brandom (born 1950 is an American Philosopher who teaches at the University of Pittsburgh. The University of Pittsburgh, commonly referred to as Pitt, is a non-sectarian coeducational independent state-related, "public" research University Each is avowedly influenced by the late Wilfred Sellars, also of Pittsburgh, who referred to his seminal work Empiricism and the Philosophy of Mind as a series of "incipient Méditations Hegeliennes" (in homage to Edmund Husserl's treatise, Meditations Cartesiennes). Wilfrid Stalker Sellars ( May 20, 1912 - July 2, 1989) was an American philosopher Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (ˈhʊsɛrl April 8 1859 – April 26 1938) was a philosopher, known as the father of Cartesian Meditations An Introduction to Phenomenology is a book by the philosopher Edmund Husserl.

Beginning in the 1990s, after the fall of the USSR, a fresh reading of Hegel took place in the West. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 For these scholars, fairly well represented by the Hegel Society of America and in cooperation with German scholars such as Otto Pöggeler and Walter Jaeschke, Hegel's works should be read without preconceptions. Marx plays a minor role in these new readings, and some contemporary scholars have suggested that Marx's interpretation of Hegel is irrelevant to a proper reading of Hegel. Some American philosophers associated with this movement include Clark Butler, Vince Hathaway, Daniel Shannon, David Duquette, David MacGregor, Edward Beach, John Burbidge, Lawrence Stepelevich, Rudolph Siebert, Theodore Geraets and William Desmond. Lawrence S Stepelevich (born 1930 is an American Philosopher associated with a renewed interest in the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel, particularly

Finally, renewed interest in Hegel's philosophy is widespread in New Age circles thanks to the enthusiastic endorsement of integral philosopher Ken Wilber. Kenneth Earl "Ken" Wilber Jr (b January 31, 1949, Oklahoma City, U

Detractors

Hegel used his system of dialectics to explain the whole of the history of philosophy, science, art, politics and religion, but he has had many critics over the centuries. In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Perhaps the most famous critics were the Left-Hegelians, including Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels and their followers in the 19th century. Young Hegelians, or Left Hegelians, were a group of Prussian intellectuals writing in the decade or so after the death of Georg Wilhelm Hegel in 1833 and responding Ludwig Andreas von Feuerbach ( July 28, 1804 &ndash September 13, 1872) was a German Philosopher and Anthropologist Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895 was a German social scientist and philosopher, who

In Britain, Hegel exercised an influence on the philosophical school called "British Idealism," which included Francis Herbert Bradley and Bernard Bosanquet, in England, and Josiah Royce at Harvard. Absolute idealism is an ontologically Monistic philosophy attributed to G Francis Herbert Bradley ( 30 January, 1846 &ndash 18 September, 1924) was a British idealist Philosopher. Bernard Bosanquet ( July 14, 1848, Rock Hall, Alnwick, Northumberland, &ndash February 8, 1923, London Josiah Royce ( November 20, 1855, Grass Valley California. &ndash September 14, 1916, Cambridge Massachusetts) was an However, Analytic philosophy, which dominated philosophy departments in the United States and the United Kingdom and still does, was virtually founded when G. E. Moore and Bertrand Russell rejected British Idealism and their colleagues' admiration for Hegel. Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of Philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century "GE Moore" redirects here For the cofounder of Intel see Gordon Moore. Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Hegel remains largely out of fashion in these departments even to this day. Logical Positivists such as Alfred Jules Ayer and the Vienna Circle criticized his ideas and their supporters such as F. H. Bradley. Logical positivism (later and more accurately called logical empiricism) is a school of philosophy that combines Empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is Sir Alfred Jules ("Freddie" Ayer ( October 29, 1910 &ndash June 27, 1989) better known as A The Vienna Circle (in German: der Wiener Kreis) was a group of philosophers who gathered around Moritz Schlick when he Francis Herbert Bradley ( 30 January, 1846 &ndash 18 September, 1924) was a British idealist Philosopher.

The trend towards criticism of Hegel has been widespread in the 19th and the 20th centuries, and has included individuals such as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, Bertrand Russell, G.E. Moore, Ludwig Wittgenstein, Eric Voegelin, Alfred Ayer, Martin Heidegger, Jacques Derrida, and many others. Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian "GE Moore" redirects here For the cofounder of Intel see Gordon Moore. Eric Voegelin, born Erich Hermann Wilhelm Vögelin ( January 3, 1901 &ndash January 19, 1985) was a Political philosopher. Sir Alfred Jules ("Freddie" Ayer ( October 29, 1910 &ndash June 27, 1989) better known as A Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher In the late 20th century this trend was resisted by Professor Jon Stewart (Northwestern University, Illinois) in 1996 with his book, The Hegel Myths and Legends. The State of Illinois ( roughly ill-i-NOY is a state of the United States of America, the 21st to be admitted to the Union.

Some 20th century critics suggested that Hegel glosses over the realities of history in order to fit it into his dialectical mold. Erich Heller opines in his The Disinherited Mind (1952) that Hegel was proved wrong — by the poets who succeeded him, not by the unfolding reality. Erich Heller ( March 27, 1911 &mdash November 5, 1990) was a British essayist known particularly for his critical studies in German-language Some newer philosophers who prefer to follow the tradition of British Philosophy have made similar statements. Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of Philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century

Obscurantism

A well known charge of obscurantist "pseudo-philosophy" against Hegel was made by his contemporary Schopenhauer, who wrote that Hegel's philosophy is:

. Obscurantism (from the Latin obscurans, "darkening" is the practice of deliberately preventing the facts or full details of something from becoming known The orthodox understanding of pseudophilosophy is any idea or system that masquerades itself as Philosophy while significantly failing to meet the high intellectual standards . . a colossal piece of mystification which will yet provide posterity with an inexhaustible theme for laughter at our times, that it is a pseudo-philosophy paralyzing all mental powers, stifling all real thinking, and, by the most outrageous misuse of language, putting in its place the hollowest, most senseless, thoughtless, and, as is confirmed by its success, most stupefying verbiage. . .

– Arthur Schopenhauer, On the Basis of Morality

The height of audacity in serving up pure nonsense, in stringing together senseless and extravagant mazes of words, such as had been only previously known in madhouses, was finally reached in Hegel, and became the instrument of the most barefaced, general mystification that has ever taken place, with a result which will appear fabulous to posterity, as a monument to German stupidity.

– Arthur Schopenhauer, Criticism of the Kantian Philosophy

Schopenhauer despised Hegel on account of the latter's alleged historicism, among other reasons. Historicism refers to philosophical theories that include one or both of two claims that there is an organic succession of developments a notion also

Moreover, modern analytic and positivistic philosophers have considered Hegel a principal target because of what they consider the obscurantism of his philosophy. Analytic philosophy (sometimes analytical philosophy) is a generic term for a style of Philosophy that came to dominate English-speaking countries in the 20th century Logical positivism (later and more accurately called logical empiricism) is a school of philosophy that combines Empiricism, the idea that observational evidence is Obscurantism (from the Latin obscurans, "darkening" is the practice of deliberately preventing the facts or full details of something from becoming known

The Absolute

Nietzsche criticized Hegel's claims about the Absolute. The Absolute is the concept of an absolute unconditional reality which transcends limited conditional everyday existence

Words are but symbols for the relations of things to one another and to us; nowhere do they touch upon absolute truth. . . . Thus it is, today, after Kant, an audacious ignorance if here and there, especially among badly informed theologians who like to play philosopher, the task of philosophy is represented as being quite certainly "comprehending the Absolute with the consciousness," somewhat completely in the form "the Absolute is already present, how could it be sought somewhere else?" as Hegel has expressed it.

– Friedrich Nietzsche, Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks, § 11. Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (October 15 1844 August 25 1900 ( was a nineteenth-century German philosopher and classical philologist Philosophy in the Tragic Age of the Greeks ( Philosophie im tragischen Zeitalter der Griechen) is a publication of an incomplete book by Friedrich Nietzsche

Totalitarianism

Kierkegaard, one of Hegel's earliest critics, criticized Hegel's "absolute knowledge" unity, not only because it was arrogant for a mere human to claim such a unity, but also because such a system negates the importance of the individual in favour of the whole unity. In Concluding Unscientific Postscript, one of Kierkegaard's main attacks of Hegel, he writes, under the pseudonym Johannes Climacus:

So-called systems have often been characterized and challenged in the assertion that they abrogate the distinction between good and evil, and destroy freedom. A pseudonym is a fictitious alternative to a person's legal name (see Alias) Perhaps one would express oneself quite as definitely, if one said that every such system fantastically dissipates the concept existence. . . . Being an individual man is a thing that has been abolished, and every speculative philosopher confuses himself with humanity at large; whereby he becomes something infinitely great, and at the same time nothing at all.

– Johannes Climacus, alias Søren Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript I

In the 20th century, Popper suggested that Hegel's system formed a thinly veiled justification for the absolute rule of Frederick William III, and that Hegel's idea of the ultimate goal of history was to reach a state approximating that of 1830s Prussia. Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (ˈsœːɐn ˈkʰiɐ̯kəˌɡ̊ɒˀ in Danish Anglicized as;) Concluding Unscientific Postscript to the Philosophical Fragments (Danish Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift til de philosophiske Smuler) is a major Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Early life The son of King Frederick William II of Prussia, Frederick William was born in Potsdam and became Crown Prince in 1786 when his father ascended Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state He argued that Hegel's philosophy eventually inspired both Marxism and fascism. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology

This view of Hegel as an apologist of state power and precursor of 20th century totalitarianism was criticized by Herbert Marcuse in his Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory, on the grounds that Hegel was not an apologist for any state or form of authority simply because it existed: for Hegel the state must always be rational. Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private Herbert Marcuse ( July 19, 1898 &ndash July 29, 1979) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a member of Other scholars, e. g. Walter Kaufmann and Shlomo Avineri, have also criticized Popper's theories about Hegel. Walter Arnold Kaufmann ( July 1, 1921 Freiburg Germany - September 4, 1980 Princeton New Jersey) was a German-American Shlomo Avineri (born in Bielsko, Poland 1933 is an Israeli Political scientist. (See for instance Walter Kaufmann 1959, The Hegel Myth and Its Method. ) An analysis against Popper's arguments can also be found in Joachim Ritter's influential work, Hegel and the French Revolution.

Following Schopenhauer and Kierkegaard, Popper accused Hegel's philosophy of being essentially vacuous, labelling it "bombastic and mystifying cant".

Indeed, Hegel points out that all personal relations can thus be reduced to the fundamental relation of master and slave, of domination and submission. Each must strive to assert and prove himself, and he who has not the nature, the courage, and the general capacity for preserving his independence, must be reduced to servitude. This charming theory of personal relations has, of course, its counterpart in Hegel's theory of international relations. Nations must assert themselves on the Stage of History; it is their duty to attempt the domination of the World.

– Karl Popper, The Open Society and Its Enemies

Santayana also interpreted Hegel as defending whoever held power, the position that might makes right. Sir Karl Raimund Popper ( July 28 1902  &ndash September 17 1994) was an Austrian and British Philosopher and a professor The Open Society and Its Enemies, is an influential two-volume work by Karl Popper written during World War II. Might makes right is an Aphorism with several potential meanings (in order of increasing complexity In English, the phrase is most often used

The worship of power is an old religion, and Hegel, to go no farther back, is full of it; but like traditional religion his system qualified its veneration for success by attributing success, in the future at least, to what could really inspire veneration; and such a master in equivocation could have no difficulty in convincing himself that the good must conquer in the end if whatever conquers in the end is the good.

– George Santayana, Winds of Doctrine, I

Hegel's relation to the Prussian government was described by Lange:

…Hegel was then (1824) already clothed in the full dignity of the state philosopher. George Santayana ( December 16, 1863, Madrid &ndash September 26, 1952, Rome) was a Philosopher, Essayist Friedrich Albert Lange ( September 28, 1828 - November 23, 1875) was a German Philosopher and Sociologist Philosophemes in which being was not replaced by non–being, and the positive obtained from the negative, were in official edicts characterized as "shallow and superficial. "

– History of Materialism, Book II, Section I, Chapter 2

Lange was referring to the Prussian Ministry of Education and Medicine's decree commanding the Royal Science Examinations Commission to suppress any "shallow and superficial" non–Hegelian philosophy^[26]

Natural Sciences

Gauss noticed that Hegel's discussion of the Natural Sciences was inaccurate:

Noah got drunk only one time, to become then, according to the Scriptures, a judicious man, while the insanities of Hegel in the Doctoral Dissertation, where he criticizes Newton and questions the utility of a search for new planets are still wisdom if one compares them with his later remarks. Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart ("History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance" is a philosophical work

– Carl Friedrich Gauss, In Jacques d'Hondt, Hegel et l'hégélianisme, Que sais-je?, p. Johann Carl Friedrich Gauss (ˈɡaʊs, Gauß Carolus Fridericus Gauss ( 30 April 1777 – 23 February 1855) was a German 27

Wilhelm Krug challenged Hegel to "deduce his quill (pen). Wilhelm Traugott Krug ( 22 June 1770 - 12 January 1842) was a German philosopher and writer " In other words, he dared Hegel to arrive at knowledge of a particular thing from the obscure logical abstractions of Absolute idealism's philosophy of nature. Absolute idealism is an ontologically Monistic philosophy attributed to G

Psychology

Perhaps the most scathing criticism has come from the famous psychoanalyst Carl Jung, who associated Hegel with mental illness when he wrote:

A philosophy like Hegel's is a self-revelation of the psychic background and, philosophically, a presumption. Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern that occurs in an individual and is thought to cause distress or disability that is not expected as Psychologically it amounts to an invasion by the Unconscious. The peculiar, high-flown language Hegel uses bears out this view -- it is reminiscent of the megalomaniac language of schizophrenics, who use terrific, spellbinding words to reduce the transcendent to subjective form, to give banalities the charm of novelty, or pass off commonplaces as searching wisdom. So bombastic a terminology is a symptom of weakness, ineptitude, and lack of substance.

– Carl G. Jung, On the Nature of the Psyche, 1928

Works

Published during Hegel's lifetime

• Differenz des Fichteschen und Schellingschen Systems der Philosophie, 1801

The Difference Between Fichte's and Schelling's Systems of Philosophy, tr. H. S. Harris and Walter Cerf, 1977

• Phänomenologie des Geistes, 1807

Phenomenology of Mind, tr. Phänomenologie des Geistes ( 1807) is one of GWF Hegel 's most important philosophical works J. B. Baillie, 1910; 2nd ed. 1931 Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit, tr. A. V. Miller, 1977

• Wissenschaft der Logik, 1812, 1813, 1816

Science of Logic, tr. Hegel 's work The Science of Logic outlined his vision of Logic, which is an ontology that incorporates the traditional Aristotelian Syllogism W. H. Johnston and L. G. Struthers, 2 vols. , 1929; tr. A. V. Miller, 1969

• Enzyklopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften, 1817; 2nd ed. The Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (in German Encyclopädie der philosophischen Wissenschaften im Grundrisse) ( 1817) is a systematic work by 1827; 3rd ed. 1830 (Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences)

(Pt. I:) The Logic of Hegel, tr. William Wallace, 1874, 2nd ed. William Wallace (May 11 1843 - February 18 1897 was a Scottish Philosopher. 1892; tr. T. F. Geraets, W. A. Suchting and H. S. Harris, 1991 (Pt. II:) Hegel's Philosophy of Nature, tr. A. V. Miller, 1970 (Pt. III:) Hegel's Philosophy of Mind, tr. William Wallace, 1894; rev. by A. V. Miller, 1971

• Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts, 1821

Elements of the Philosophy of Right, tr. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel 's Elements of the Philosophy of Right ( Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) was published in 1820, though the T. M. Knox, 1942; tr. H. B. Bisnet, ed. Allen W. Wood, 1991

Published posthumously

• Lectures on Aesthetics
• Lectures on the Philosophy of History (also translated as Lectures on the Philosophy of World History) 1837
• Lectures on Philosophy of Religion
• Lectures on the History of Philosophy

Secondary literature

General introductions

• Beiser, Frederick C., 2005. Lectures on the Philosophy of History, also translated as Lectures on the Philosophy of World History ( German Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Weltgeschichte Frederick C Beiser (born November 27 1949 one of the leading scholars of German Idealism, is a Professor of Philosophy at Syracuse University. Hegel. Routledge
• Findlay, J. N., 1958. John Niemeyer Findlay, known as J N Findlay, ( Pretoria, 25 November 1903 – 27 September 1987) was a South African Hegel: A Re-examination. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-519879-4
• Houlgate, Stephen, 2005. An Introduction to Hegel. Freedom, Truth and History. Oxford: Blackwell
• Kainz, Howard P. , 1996. G. W. F. Hegel. Ohio University Press. ISBN 0-8214-1231-0.
• Kaufmann, Walter, 1965. Walter Arnold Kaufmann ( July 1, 1921 Freiburg Germany - September 4, 1980 Princeton New Jersey) was a German-American Hegel: A Reinterpretation. New York: Doubleday (reissued Notre Dame IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978)
• Plant, Raymond, 1983. Hegel: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell
• Singer, Peter, 2001. Peter Albert David Singer (born July 6, 1946 in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia) is an Australian philosopher. Hegel: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press (previously issued in the OUP Past Masters series, 1983)
• Stirling, James Hutchison, The Secret of Hegel: Being the Hegelian System in Origin Principle, Form and Matter
• Taylor, Charles, 1975. James Hutchison Stirling ( January 22, 1820 &ndash March 19, 1909) Philosopher, born in Glasgow, and educated there and The Secret of Hegel Being the Hegelian System in Origin Principle Form and Matter is a Philosophy book by James Hutchison Stirling. Charles Margrave Taylor (born November 5, 1931) CC GOQ MA DPhil FRSC is a Philosopher from Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29199-2. A comprehensive exposition of Hegel's thought and its impact on the central intellectual and spiritual issues of his and our time.
• Scruton, Roger, "Understanding Hegel" in The Philosopher on Dover Beach, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1990. Roger Vernon Scruton (born 27 February 1944) is an English Conservative Philosopher. ISBN 0-85635-857-6

Essays

• Beiser, Frederick C. (ed. Frederick C Beiser (born November 27 1949 one of the leading scholars of German Idealism, is a Professor of Philosophy at Syracuse University. ), 1993. The Cambridge Companion to Hegel. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-38711-6. A collection of articles covering the range of Hegel's thought.
• Adorno, Theodor W., 1994. Theodor Ludwig Wiesengrund Adorno ( September 11, 1903 &ndash August 6, 1969) was a German -born international sociologist Hegel: Three Studies. MIT Press. Translated by Shierry M. Nicholsen, with an introduction by Nicholsen and Jeremy J. Shapiro, ISBN 0-262-51080-4. Essays on Hegel's concept of spirit/mind, Hegel's concept of experience, and why Hegel is difficult to read.

Biography

• Althaus, Horst, 1992. Hegel und die heroischen Jahre der Philosophie. Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag. Eng. tr. Michael Tarsh as Hegel: An Intellectual Biography, Cambridge: Polity Press, 2000
• Pinkard, Terry P. , 2000. Hegel: A Biography. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-49679-9. By a leading American Hegel scholar; aims to debunk popular misconceptions about Hegel's thought.
• Rosenkranz, Karl, 1844. Johann Karl Friedrich Rosenkranz ( April 23, 1805 - July 14, 1879) was a German Philosopher. Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegels Leben. Still an important source for Hegel's life.
• Hondt, Jacques d', 1998. Hegel: Biographie. Calmann-Lévy

Historical

• Rockmore, Tom, 1993. Before and After Hegel: A Historical Introduction to Hegel's Thought. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-648-3.

Hegel's development

• Lukács, Georg, 1948. György Lukács (pronounced in IPA dyɶrdyə ˈlukɑtʃ) ( April 13, 1885 – June 4, 1971) was a Hungarian Der junge Hegel. Zurich and Vienna (2nd ed. Berlin, 1954). Eng. tr. Rodney Livingstone as The Young Hegel, London: Merlin Press, 1975. ISBN 0-262-12070-4
• Harris, H. S. , 1972. Hegel's Development: Towards the Sunlight 1770-1801. Oxford: Clarendon Press
• Harris, H. S. , 1983. Hegel's Development: Night Thoughts (Jena 1801-1806). Oxford: Clarendon Press
• Dilthey, Wilhelm, 1906. Wilhelm Dilthey (ˈdɪltaɪ November 19, 1833 &ndash October 1, 1911) was a German Historian, Psychologist Die Jugendgeschichte Hegels (repr. in Gesammelte Schriften, 1959, vol. IV)
• Haering, Theodor L. , 1929, 1938. Hegel: sein Wollen und sein Werk, 2 vols. Leipzig (repr. Aalen: Scientia Verlag, 1963)

Recent English-language literature

• Inwood, Michael, 1983. Hegel. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul (Arguments of the Philosophers)
• Rockmore, Tom, 1986. Hegel's Circular Epistemology. Indiana University Press
• Pinkard, Terry P. , 1988. Hegel's Dialectic: The Explanation of Possibility. Temple University Press
• Westphal, Kenneth, 1989. Hegel's Epistemological Realism. Kluwer Academic Publishers
• Forster, Michael N. , 1989. Hegel and Skepticism. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-38707-4
• Pippin, Robert B., 1989. Robert B Pippin (born 1948) is an American philosopher He is the Evelyn Stefansson Nef Distinguished Service Professor in the Committee on Social Thought and Hegel's Idealism: the Satisfactions of Self-Consciousness. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-37923-7. Advocates a stronger continuity between Hegel and Kant.

Phenomenology of Spirit

(See also the article The Phenomenology of Spirit. Phänomenologie des Geistes ( 1807) is one of GWF Hegel 's most important philosophical works )

• Stern, Robert, 2002. Hegel and the Phenomenology of Spirit. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-21788-1. An introduction for students.
• Cohen, Joseph, 2007. Le sacrifice de Hegel. (In French language). Paris, Galilée. An extensive study of the question of sacrifice in Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit.
• Hyppolite, Jean, 1946. Jean Hyppolite ( Jonzac 1907 - Paris 1968 was a French Philosopher known for championing the work of Hegel, and other German philosophers and Genèse et structure de la Phénoménologie de l'esprit. Paris: Aubier. Eng. tr. Samuel Cherniak and John Heckman as Genesis and Structure of Hegel's "Phenomenology of Spirit", Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1979. ISBN 0-8101-0594-2. A classic commentary.
• Kojève, Alexandre, 1947. Alexandre Kojève (Russian Александр Владимирович Кожевников Aleksandr Vladimirovič Koževnikov; April 28 1902 &ndash Introduction à la lecture de Hegel. Paris: Gallimard. Eng. tr. James H. Nichols, Jr. , as Introduction to the Reading of Hegel: Lectures on the Phenomenology of Spirit, Basic Books, 1969. ISBN 0-8014-9203-3 Influential European reading of Hegel.
• Solomon, Robert C., 1983. Robert C Solomon ( September 14, 1942 &ndash January 2, 2007) was a professor of Continental philosophy at the University of In the Spirit of Hegel. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
• Harris, H. S. , 1995. Hegel: Phenomenology and System. Indianapolis: Hackett. A distillation of the author's monumental two-volume commentary Hegel's Ladder.
• Westphal, Kenneth R. , 2003. Hegel's Epistemology: A Philosophical Introduction to the Phenomenology of Spirit. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-645-9
• Russon, John, 2004. John Russon is a Canadian Philosopher, working primarily in the tradition of Continental Philosophy. Reading Hegel's Phenomenology. Indiana University Press. ISBN 0-253-21692-3.
• Bristow, William, 2007. Hegel and the Transformation of Philosophical Critique. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199290644
• Kalkavage, Peter, 2007. The Logic of Desire: An Introduction to Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit. Philadelphia: Paul Dry Books. ISBN 9781589880375. This work provides insights on Hegel's complex work as a whole as well as serving as a sure guide for every chapter and for virtually every paragraph.
• Scruton, Roger, "Understanding Hegel" in The Philosopher on Dover Beach, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1990. Roger Vernon Scruton (born 27 February 1944) is an English Conservative Philosopher. ISBN 0-85635-857-6

Logic

(See also the article Science of Logic. Hegel 's work The Science of Logic outlined his vision of Logic, which is an ontology that incorporates the traditional Aristotelian Syllogism )

• Hartnack, Justus, 1998. An Introduction to Hegel's Logic. Indianapolis: Hackett. ISBN 0-87220-424-3
• Schäfer, Rainer, 2001. Die Dialektik und ihre besonderen Formen in Hegels Logik. Hamburg/Meiner. ISBN 3-7873-1585-3.
• Wallace, Robert M. , 2005. Hegel's Philosophy of Reality, Freedom, and God. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-84484-3. Through a detailed analysis of Hegel's Science of Logic, Wallace shows how Hegel contributes to the broadly Platonic tradition of philosophy that includes Aristotle, Plotinus, and Kant. In the course of doing this, Wallace defends Hegel against major critiques, including the one presented by Charles Taylor in his Hegel.

Politics

• Avineri, Shlomo, 1974. Hegel's Theory of the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. Best introduction to Hegel's political philosophy.
• Ritter, Joachim, 1984. Hegel and the French Revolution. MIT Press.
• Marcuse, Herbert, 1941. Herbert Marcuse ( July 19, 1898 &ndash July 29, 1979) was a German philosopher and sociologist, and a member of Reason and Revolution: Hegel and the Rise of Social Theory. An introduction to the philosophy of Hegel, devoted to debunking the conception that Hegel's work included in nuce the Fascist totalitarianism of National Socialism; the negation of philosophy through historical materialism. Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German Historical materialism is the methodological approach to the study of society economics and history which was first articulated by Karl Marx ( 1818 - 1883
• Rose, Gillian, 1981. This page is about the philosopher Gillian Rose For the geographer see Gillian Rose (geographer. Hegel Contra Sociology. Athlone Press. ISBN 0-485-12036-4.
• Scruton, Roger, "Hegel as a conservative thinker" in The Philosopher on Dover Beach, Manchester: Carcanet Press, 1990. Roger Vernon Scruton (born 27 February 1944) is an English Conservative Philosopher. ISBN 0-85635-857-6

Religion

• Desmond, William, 2003. Hegel's God: A Counterfeit Double?. Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-0565-5
• O'Regan, Cyril, 1994. The Heterodox Hegel. State University of New York Press, Albany. ISBN 0-7914-2006-X. The most authoritative work to date on Hegel's philosophy of religion.
• Cohen, Joseph, 2005. Le spectre juif de Hegel (in French language); Preface by Jean-Luc Nancy. Paris, Galilée. An extensive study of the Jewish question in Hegel's Early Theological Writings.
• Dickey, Laurence, 1987. Hegel: Religion, Economics, and the Politics of Spirit, 1770–1807. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-33035-1. A fascinating account of how "Hegel became Hegel", using the guiding hypothesis that Hegel "was basically a theologian manqué".

Hegel's reputation

• Popper, Karl. The Open Society and Its Enemies, vol. 2: Hegel and Marx. An influential attack on Hegel.
• Stewart, Jon, ed. , 1996. The Hegel Myths and Legends. Northwestern University Press.

Notes

See also

• Thesis, antithesis, synthesis
• Political consciousness
• The Secret of Hegel
• Emil Fackenheim

External links

• The new HegelWiki
• A superior biography of Hegel with graphics
• Hegel.net - resources available under the GNU FDL
• Hegel.net - wiki article on Hegel
• Alicia Farinati - Hegelian Works Several articles on Hegel. Friedrich Albert Lange ( September 28, 1828 - November 23, 1875) was a German Philosopher and Sociologist Geschichte des Materialismus und Kritik seiner Bedeutung in der Gegenwart ("History of Materialism and Critique of its Present Importance" is a philosophical work Although he never used the terms himself the Triad thesis antithesis synthesis is often used to describe the thought of German philosopher Georg The politics of consciousness Consciousness typically refers to the idea of a being who is self-aware The Secret of Hegel Being the Hegelian System in Origin Principle Form and Matter is a Philosophy book by James Hutchison Stirling. Emil Ludwig Fackenheim PhD ( June 22, 1916 – September 18, 2003) was a noted Jewish Philosopher and Reform Available in English, Spanish and French
• Hegel's Logic of Desire - An introduction to The Phenomenology of Spirit
• Commented link list
• Discussion, Interpretations and Questions about Hegel
• Hegel mailing lists in the internet
• Explanation of Hegel, mostly in German
• Discussion of the Hegelian tradition, including the Left and Right schism
• The Hegel Society of America
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel entry at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• http://www.gwfhegel.org/
• Hegel page in 'The History Guide'
• Is Hegel a Christian?
• 'The Spirit of the Age: Hegel and the Fate of Thinking' double issue of the journal Cosmos and History

Hegel's texts online

• Works by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel at Project Gutenberg
• Philosophy of History Introduction
• Hegel's The Philosophy of Right
• Hegel's The Philosophy of History
• Hegel by HyperText, reference archive on Marxists.org