Citizendia

Higher electricity use per capita correlates with a higher score on the Human Development Index (1997). Developing nations score much lower on these variables than developed nations. The continued rapid economic growth and increase in living standards in developing nations with large populations, like China and India, is dependent on a rapid and large expansion of energy production capacity.
Higher electricity use per capita correlates with a higher score on the Human Development Index (1997). The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP Developing nations score much lower on these variables than developed nations. The continued rapid economic growth and increase in living standards in developing nations with large populations, like China and India, is dependent on a rapid and large expansion of energy production capacity. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός

Energy development is the ongoing effort to provide sufficient primary energy sources and secondary energy forms to power the world economy. Primary energy is energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process In the context of Physical sciences several forms of Energy have been defined It involves both installation of established technologies and research and development to create new energy-related technologies. Major considerations in energy planning include cost, impact on air pollution, and whether or not the source is renewable. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal

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Sustainability

The environmental movement emphasizes sustainability of energy use and development. The environmental movement, a term that includes the conservation and green movements is a diverse scientific social and Political movement for Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely Renewable energy is sustainable in its production; the available supply will not be diminished for the foreseeable future - millions or billions of years. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal "Sustainability" also refers to the ability of the environment to cope with waste products, especially air pollution. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Sources which have no direct waste products (such as wind, solar, and hydropower) are seen as ideal in this regard.

The status of nuclear power is controversial. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions The supply of usable uranium might last a very long time, with an almost unlimiited supply of sea water uranium available once ground based mining is exhausted, but nuclear waste must be stored in a shielded location for hundreds or thousands of years. Uranium (jʊˈreɪniəm is a silvery-gray Metallic Chemical element in the

Fossil fuels such as petroleum, coal, natural gas are not renewable. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, For example, the timing of worldwide peak oil production is being actively debated, but it has already happened in some countries. Fossil fuels also make up the bulk of the world's current primary energy sources. Primary energy is energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process With global demand for energy growing, the need to adopt alternative energy sources is also growing. Fossil fuels are also a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, leading to concerns about global warming if consumption is not reduced. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the

Energy conservation is an alternative or complementary process to energy development. Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used It reduces the demand for energy by using it more efficiently.

Dependence on external energy sources

Technologically advanced societies have become increasingly dependent on external energy sources for transportation, the production of many manufactured goods, and the delivery of energy services. Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another This energy allows people, in general, to live under otherwise unfavorable climatic conditions through the use of heating, ventilation, and/or air conditioning. HVAC (pronounced either "H-V-A-C" or occasionally " H-vak " is an Initialism or Acronym that stands for " Heating Level of use of external energy sources differs across societies, as do the climate, convenience, traffic congestion, pollution, production, and greenhouse gas emissions of each society. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared

Increased levels of human comfort generally induce increased dependence on external energy sources, although the application of energy efficiency and conservation approaches allows a certain degree of mitigation of the dependence. Energy conservation is the practice of decreasing the quantity of energy used Wise energy use therefore embodies the idea of balancing human comfort with reasonable energy consumption levels by researching and implementing effective and sustainable energy harvesting and utilization measures. Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter.

Primary energy sources

Primary energy sources are substances or processes with concentrations of energy at a high enough potential to be feasibly encouraged to convert to lower energy forms under human control for human benefit. Primary energy is energy that has not been subjected to any conversion or transformation process Except for nuclear fuels, tidal energy and geothermal energy, all terrestrial energy sources are from current solar insolation or from fossil remains of plant and animal life that relied directly and indirectly upon sunlight, respectively. Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive Nuclear energy, by analogy to chemical Fuel that is burned to derive energy Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection And ultimately, solar energy itself is the result of the Sun's nuclear fusion. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Geothermal power from hot, hardened rock above the magma of the earth's core is the result of the accumulation of radioactive materials during the formation of Earth which was the byproduct of a previous supernova event. Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Magma (Plurals magmas and magmata) is molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other Terrestrial planet A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion. A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion.

Fossil fuels

Main article: Fossil fuel

Fossil fuels, in terms of energy, involve the burning of coal or hydrocarbon fuels, which are the remains of the decomposition of plants and animals. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon. There are three main types of fossil fuels: coal, petroleum, and natural gas. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Another fossil fuel, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is principally derived from the production of natural gas. Liquefied petroleum gas (also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, or Autogas) is a mixture of Hydrocarbon Gases used as a Fuel Heat from burning fossil fuel is used either directly for space heating and process heating, or converted to mechanical energy for vehicles, industrial processes, or electrical power generation.

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The Moss Landing Power Plant burns natural gas to produce electricity in California.
The Moss Landing Power Plant burns natural gas to produce electricity in California. The Moss Landing Power Plant is an Electricity generation plant located in Moss Landing California, at the midpoint of Monterey Bay. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean.
Gas flare from an oil refinery.
Gas flare from an oil refinery. gas flare or flare stack is an elevated vertical stack or Chimney found on Oil wells or oil rigs, and in refineries An oil refinery is an industrial Process plant where Crude oil is processed and refined into more useful Petroleum products, such as Gasoline

Since these power plants are thermal engines, and are typically quite large, waste heat disposal becomes an issue at high ambient temperature. Thus, at a time of peak demand, a power plant may need to be shut down or operate at a reduced power level, as sometimes do nuclear power plants, for the same reasons. Peak demand is used to refer to a historically high point in the sales record of a particular product.

Biomass, biofuels, and vegetable oil

Sugar cane residue can be used as a biofuel
Sugar cane residue can be used as a biofuel
Main articles: Alcohol fuel, Biomass, Vegetable oil economy, vegetable oil as fuel, biodiesel, Ethanol fuel

Biomass production involves using garbage or other renewable resources such as corn or other vegetation to generate electricity. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Although Fossil fuels have become the dominant Energy resource for the modern world Alcohol has been used as a fuel throughout history Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Vegetable oil economy is the potential of Vegetable oil to replace Fossil fuels in the economy and how it compares to other potential replacements For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. WASTE is a Peer-to-peer and Friend-to-friend protocol and software application developed by Justin Frankel at Nullsoft in 2003 that features Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants When garbage decomposes, the methane produced is captured in pipes and later burned to produce electricity. Decomposition (or spoilage) refers to the break down of tissue of a formerly living Organism into simpler forms of matter Methane is a Chemical compound with the molecular formula. It is the simplest Alkane, and the principal component of Natural gas. Vegetation and wood can be burned directly to generate energy, like fossil fuels, or processed to form alcohols. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon

Vegetable oil is generated from sunlight and CO2 by plants. It is safer to use and store than gasoline or diesel as it has a higher flash point. Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest Temperature at which it can form an ignitable mixture in air Straight vegetable oil works in diesel engines if it is heated first. For engines designed to burn #2 diesel fuel the Viscosity of vegetable oil must be lowered to allow for proper Atomization of fuel otherwise incomplete combustion Vegetable oil can also be transesterified to make biodiesel, which burns like normal diesel. In Organic chemistry, transesterification is the process of exchanging the Alcohol group of an Ester compound with another Alcohol. Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by

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Hydroelectric energy

Main article: Hydroelectricity

In hydro energy, the gravitational descent of a river is compressed from a long run to a single location with a dam or a flume. Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees A flume is an open artificial water channel in the form of a gravity chute, that leads Water from a Diversion dam or Weir completely aside This creates a location where concentrated pressure and flow can be used to turn turbines or water wheels, which drive a mechanical mill or an electric generator. Pressure (symbol 'p' is the force per unit Area applied to an object in a direction perpendicular to the surface The volumetric flow rate in Fluid dynamics and Hydrometry, (also known as volume flow rate or rate of fluid flow) is the volume of fluid which A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow A water wheel is a means of extracting power from the flow (or fall of water otherwise known as Hydropower. This article is about a type of structure For other locational uses see Milldam. In Electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts Mechanical energy to Electrical energy, generally using Electromagnetic

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Tidal Power Generation

Main article: Tidal power

Tidal power can be extracted from Moon-gravity-powered tides by locating a water turbine in a tidal current, or by building impoundment pond dams that admit-or-release water through a turbine. Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Characteristics A tide is a repeated cycle of sea level changes in the following stages Over several hours the water rises or advances up a beach in the flood A water turbine is a rotary Engine that takes energy from moving water The turbine can turn an electrical generator, or a gas compressor, that can then store energy until needed. In Electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts Mechanical energy to Electrical energy, generally using Electromagnetic A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the Pressure of a Gas by reducing its Volume. Coastal tides are a source of clean, free, renewable, and sustainable energy.

Nuclear energy

Main article: Nuclear power
Diablo Canyon Power Plant Nuclear power station.
Diablo Canyon Power Plant Nuclear power station. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions The Diablo Canyon Power Plant is an electricity-generating Nuclear power plant in San Luis Obispo County, California.
The status of nuclear power globally. Nations in dark green have reactors and are constructing new reactors, those in light green are constructing their first reactor, those in dark yellow are considering new reactors, those in light yellow are considering their first reactor, those in blue have reactors but are not constructing or decommissioning, those in light blue are considering decommissioning and those in red have decommissioned all their commercial reactors. Brown indicates that the country has declared itself free of nuclear power and weapons.
The status of nuclear power globally. Nations in dark green have reactors and are constructing new reactors, those in light green are constructing their first reactor, those in dark yellow are considering new reactors, those in light yellow are considering their first reactor, those in blue have reactors but are not constructing or decommissioning, those in light blue are considering decommissioning and those in red have decommissioned all their commercial reactors. Brown indicates that the country has declared itself free of nuclear power and weapons.
History of the use of nuclear power (top) and the number of active nuclear power plants (bottom).
History of the use of nuclear power (top) and the number of active nuclear power plants (bottom).

Nuclear power stations use nuclear fission to generate energy by the reaction of uranium-235 inside a nuclear reactor. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may Uranium (jʊˈreɪniəm is a silvery-gray Metallic Chemical element in the This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled The reactor uses uranium rods, the atoms of which are split in the process of fission, releasing a large amount of energy. In Geometry, a rod is a 3- Dimensional Solid (filled cylinder. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may The process continues as a chain reaction with other nuclei. A chain reaction is a sequence of Reactions where a reactive product or by-product causes additional reactions to take place The nucleus of an Atom is the very dense region consisting of Nucleons ( Protons and Neutrons, at the center of an atom The heat released, heats water to create steam, which spins a turbine generator, producing electricity. Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow

Depending on the type of fission fuel considered, estimates for existing supply at known usage rates varies from several decades for the currently popular Uranium-235 to thousands of years for uranium-238. At the present use rate, there are (as of 2007) about 70 years left of known uranium-235 reserves economically recoverable at a uranium price of US$ 130/kg. See also Uranium depletion, Hubbert peak theory Peak uranium is the point in time that the maximum global Uranium production rate is reached Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission [9] The nuclear industry argue that the cost of fuel is a minor cost factor for fission power, more expensive, more difficult to extract sources of uranium could be used in the future, such as lower-grade ores, and if prices increased enough, from sources such as granite and seawater. [9] Increasing the price of uranium would have little effect on the overall cost of nuclear power; a doubling in the cost of natural uranium would increase the total cost of nuclear power by 5 percent. On the other hand, if the price of natural gas was doubled, the cost of gas-fired power would increase by about 60 percent. [10]

Opponents on the other hand argue that the correlation between price and production is not linear, but as the ores' concentration becomes smaller, the difficulty (energy and resource consumption are increasing, while the yields are decreasing) of extraction rises very fast, and that the assertion that a higher price will yield more uranium is overly optimistic; for example a rough estimate predicts that the extraction of uranium from granite will consume at least 70 times more energy than what it will produce in a reactor. As many as eleven countries have depleted their uranium resources, and only Canada has mines left which produce better than 1% concentration ore. [11] Seawater seems to be equally dubious as a source. [12] As a consequence an eventual doubling in the price of uranium will give a marginal increase in the volumes that are being produced.

Another alternative would be to use thorium as fission fuel. Thorium (ˈθɔːriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Th and Atomic number 90 Thorium is three times more abundant in Earth's crust than uranium,[13] and much more of the thorium can be used (or, more precisely, bred into Uranium-233, reprocessed and then used as fuel). India has around 32 percent of the world’s reserves of thorium and intends on using it for itself because the country has run out of uranium. [14]

Current light water reactors burn the nuclear fuel poorly, leading to energy waste. See also Nuclear power "LWR" redirects here See also LWR (disambiguation A light water reactor or LWR is Nuclear reprocessing[15] or burning the fuel better using different reactor designs would reduce the amount of waste material generated and allow better use of the available resources. Nuclear reprocessing separates components of Spent nuclear fuel such as Reprocessed uranium Plutonium Minor As opposed to current light water reactors which use uranium-235 (0. Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission 7 percent of all natural uranium), fast breeder reactors convert the more abundant uranium-238 (99. The fast breeder or fast breeder reactor ( FBR) is a Fast neutron reactor designed to breed fuel by producing more Fissile material Uranium-238 (U-238 is the most common isotope of Uranium found in nature 3 percent of all natural uranium) into plutonium for fuel. It has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to five billion years worth of Uranium-238 for use in these power plants. [16] Fast breeder technology has been used in several reactors. However, the fast breeder reactors at Dounreay in Scotland, Monju in Japan and the Superphénix at Creys-Malville in France, in particular, have all had difficulties and were not economically competitive and most have been decommissioned. Dounreay ( Ordnance Survey) is the name of a now ruinous Castle on the north Coast of Caithness, in the Highland area of is Japan 's only Fast breeder reactor. Located in Tsuruga, Fukui Prefecture in Japan, the reactor began construction in 1985 and first achieved Superphénix ( English: Superphoenix) or SPX is a Nuclear power station on the Rhône River at Creys-Malville in France, The Decommissioning of Nuclear power plants is sometimes referred to as nuclear decommissioning, to mark the difference between 'conventional' decommissioning and dismantling The People's Republic of China intends to build breeders. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES [17] India has run out of uranium and is building thermal breeders that can convert Th-232 into U-233 and burn it. [14]

Some nuclear engineers think that pebble bed reactors, in which each nuclear fuel pellet is coated with a ceramic coating, are inherently safe and are the best solution for nuclear power. Nuclear engineering is the application of the breakdown of atomic nuclei and/or other sub-atomic physics based on the principles of Nuclear physics. The pebble bed reactor ( PBR) is a graphite- moderated, gas-cooled Nuclear reactor. The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) They can also be configured to produce hydrogen for hydrogen vehicles. A hydrogen vehicle is a Vehicle that uses Hydrogen as its on-board fuel for motive power China has plans to build pebble bed reactors configured to produce hydrogen.

The possibility of nuclear meltdowns and other reactor accidents, such as the Three Mile Island accident and the Chernobyl disaster, have caused much public fear. A nuclear meltdown is a term for a severe Nuclear reactor accident The Three Mile Island accident of 1979 was the most significant accident in the history of the American commercial Nuclear power generating industry The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. Research is being done to lessen the known problems of current reactor technology by developing automated and passively-safe reactors. Passive Nuclear safety describes a safety feature of a Nuclear reactor that does not require operator action or electronic feedback in order to shut down safely in Historically, however, coal and hydropower power generation have both been the cause of more deaths per energy unit produced than nuclear power generation. [18][19] Various kinds of energy infrastructure might be attacked by terrorists, including nuclear power plants, hydropower plants, and liquified natural gas tankers. Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion Not to be confused with Natural Gas Liquids (NGL Liquefied natural gas or LNG is Natural gas (primarily Methane, CH4 A tank truck ( United States usage or tanker lorry ( United Kingdom usage is a Motor vehicle designed to carry liquefied loads, Nuclear proliferation is the spread from nation to nation of nuclear technology, including nuclear power plants but especially nuclear weapons. Nuclear proliferation is a term now used to describe the spread of Nuclear weapons, fissile material and weapons-applicable nuclear technology and information to nations A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. New technology like SSTAR ("small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor") may lessen this risk. SSTAR is an acronym for the "small sealed transportable autonomous reactor " - being primarily researched and developed in the USA by Lawrence Livermore

The long-term radioactive waste storage problems of nuclear power have not been fully solved. Radioactive wastes are Waste types containing radioactive Chemical elements that do not have a practical purpose Several countries have considered using underground repositories. Nuclear waste takes up little space compared to wastes from the chemical industry which remain toxic indefinitely. [15] Spent fuel rods are now stored in concrete casks close to the nuclear reactors. [20] The amounts of waste could be reduced in several ways. Both nuclear reprocessing and fast breeder reactors could reduce the amounts of waste. Nuclear reprocessing separates components of Spent nuclear fuel such as Reprocessed uranium Plutonium Minor The fast breeder or fast breeder reactor ( FBR) is a Fast neutron reactor designed to breed fuel by producing more Fissile material Subcritical reactors or fusion reactors could greatly reduce the time the waste has to be stored. A Subcritical reactor is a nuclear fission reactor that produces fission without achieving Criticality. [21] Subcritical reactors may also be able to do the same to already existing waste. The only way of dealing with waste today is by geological storage.

The economics of nuclear power is not simple to evaluate, because of high capital costs for building and very low fuel costs. See also Nuclear debate The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject since multi-billion dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy Comparison with other power generation methods is strongly dependent on assumptions about construction timescales and capital financing for nuclear plants. See Economics of new nuclear power plants. See also Nuclear debate The economics of new nuclear power plants is a controversial subject since multi-billion dollar investments ride on the choice of an energy

Depending on the source different energy return on energy investment (EROI) are claimed. EROI or the Eastman Rochester Organ Initiative is a project run by the Eastman School of Music with the goal of creating a unique collection of organ instruments in Advocates (using life cycle analysis) argue that it takes 4–5 months of energy production from the nuclear plant to fully pay back the initial energy investment. [22] Opponents claim that it depends on the grades of the ores the fuel came from, so a full payback can vary from 10 to 18 years, and that the advocates' claim was based on the assumption of high grade ores (the yields are getting worst, as the ores are leaner, for less than 0. 02% ores, the yield is less then 50%). [23]

Advocates also claim that it is possible to relatively rapidly increase the number of plants. Typical new reactor designs have a construction time of three to four years. [24] In 1983, 43 plants were being built, before an unexpected fall in fossil fuel prices stopped most new construction. Developing countries like India and China are rapidly increasing their nuclear energy use. [25][26] However, a Council on Foreign Relations report on nuclear energy argues that a rapid expansion of nuclear power may create shortages in building materials such as reactor-quality concrete and steel, skilled workers and engineers, and safety controls by skilled inspectors. The Council on Foreign Relations ( CFR) is an American Nonpartisan foreign policy membership organization founded in 1921 and based at 58 East 68th Street (at This would drive up current prices. [27]

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Fusion power

Fusion power could solve many of the problems of fission power (the technology mentioned above) but, despite research having started in the 1950s, no commercial fusion reactor is expected before 2050. Fusion power is power generated by Nuclear fusion reactions In this kind of reaction two light atomic nuclei fuse Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may [35] Many technical problems remain unsolved. Proposed fusion reactors commonly use deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen, as fuel and in most current designs also lithium. Deuterium, also called heavy hydrogen, is a Stable isotope of Hydrogen with a Natural abundance in the Oceans of Earth Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Lithium (ˈlɪθiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Li and Atomic number 3 Assuming a fusion energy output equal to the current global output and that this does not increase in the future, then the known current lithium reserves would last 3000 years, lithium from sea water would last 60 million years, and a more complicated fusion process using only deuterium from sea water would have fuel for 150 billion years. [36]

Wind power

Wind power: worldwide installed capacity and prediction 1997-2010, Source: WWEA
Wind power: worldwide installed capacity and prediction 1997-2010, Source: WWEA
Main article: Wind power

This type of energy harnesses the power of the wind to propel the blades of wind turbines. Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was A wind turbine is a rotating machine which converts the Kinetic energy in Wind into Mechanical energy. These turbines cause the rotation of magnets, which creates electricity. A magnet (from Greek grc μαγνήτης λίθος " Magnesian stone" is a material or object that produces a Magnetic field. Wind towers are usually built together on wind farms. A wind farm is a group of Wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power

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Solar power

The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5.5 million. It started feeding electricity to the national grid in November 2005.
The CIS Tower, Manchester, England, was clad in PV panels at a cost of £5. The CIS Tower is the second- tallest building in Manchester, England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland 5 million. It started feeding electricity to the national grid in November 2005. The National Grid is the high-voltage Electric power transmission network in Great Britain, connecting Power stations and major substations and
Main articles: Solar energy, Photovoltaics

Solar power involves using solar cells to convert sunlight into electricity, using sunlight hitting solar thermal panels to convert sunlight to heat water or air, using sunlight hitting a parabolic mirror to heat water (producing steam), or using sunlight entering windows for passive solar heating of a building. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Photovoltaics ( PV) is the field of technology and research related to the application of Solar cells for Energy by converting Sunlight directly A solar cell or photovoltaic cell is a device that converts Solar energy into Electricity by the photovoltaic effect. Sunlight, in the broad sense is the total spectrum of the Electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. A parabolic reflector (or dish or mirror) is a Parabola -shaped reflective device used to collect or distribute Energy such as Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. For the application of passive solar technologies in buildings see Passive solar building design. It would be advantageous to place solar panels in the regions of highest solar radiation. In the Phoenix, Arizona area, for example, the average annual solar radiation is 5. 7 kWh/m²/day,[38] or 2080. 5 kWh/m²/year. Electricity demand in the continental U. S. is 3. 7*1012 kW·h per year. Thus, at 100% efficiency, an area of 1. 8x10^9 sq. m (around 700 square miles) would need to be covered with solar panels to replace all current electricity production in the US with solar power, and at 20% efficiency, an area of approximately 3500 square miles (3% of Arizona's land area). The average solar radiation in the United States is 4. 8 kwh/m²/day,[39] but reaches 8–9 kWh/m²/day in parts of Southwest.

The cost, assuming $500/meter², would be about $5-10 trillion dollars.

China is aggressively more-than-doubling worldwide silicon wafer capacity for photovoltaics to 2,000 metric tons by July 2008, and over 6,000 metric tons by the end of 2010. [40] Significant international investment capital is flowing into China to support this opportunity. China is building large subsidized off-the-grid solar-powered cities in Huangbaiyu and Dongtan Eco City. Huangbaiyu ( Hanzi:) is a model village in Benxi, Liaoning, People's Republic of China. Dongtan ( is a new Eco-city planned for the island of Chongming, near Shanghai, China. Much of the design was done by Americans such as William McDonough. William Andrews McDonough (b February 21, 1951, Hong Kong) is an American Architect and founding principal of William McDonough

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Geothermal energy

Main article: Geothermal power

Geothermal energy harnesses the heat energy present underneath the Earth. Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Two wells are drilled. One well injects water into the ground to provide water. The hot rocks heat the water to produce steam. In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. The steam that shoots back up the other hole(s) is purified and is used to drive turbines, which power electric generators. A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow In Electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts Mechanical energy to Electrical energy, generally using Electromagnetic When the water temperature is below the boiling point of water a binary system is used. A low boiling point liquid is used to drive a turbine and generator in a closed system similar to a refrigeration unit running in reverse.

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Cons

Increased efficiency in energy use

Efficiency is increasing by about 2% a year, and absorbs most of the requirements for energy development. New technology makes better use of already available energy through improved efficiency, such as more efficient fluorescent lamps, engines, and insulation. A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a Gas-discharge lamp that uses Electricity to excite mercury Vapor. An engine is a mechanical device that produces some form of output from a given input The term thermal insulation can refer to materials used to reduce the rate of Heat transfer, or the methods and processes used to reduce heat transfer Using heat exchangers, it is possible to recover some of the energy in waste warm water and air, for example to preheat incoming fresh water. A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient Heat transfer from one medium to another whether the media are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix or the media Hydrocarbon fuel production from pyrolysis could also be in this category, allowing recovery of some of the energy in hydrocarbon waste. Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam Meat production is energy inefficient compared to the production of protein sources like soybean or Quorn. In modern English usage meat most often refers to Animal tissue used as food mostly Skeletal muscle and associated Fat, but it may also refer Quorn is the leading brand of Mycoprotein food product in the UK and a leading brand elsewhere Already existing power plants often can and usually are made more efficient with minor modifications due to new technology. A power station (also referred to as generating station, power plant or powerhouse) is an industrial facility for the generation of New power plants may become more efficient with technology like cogeneration. Energy recycling Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a Heat engine or a Power station to simultaneously generate both New designs for buildings may incorporate techniques like passive solar. For the application of passive solar technologies in buildings see Passive solar building design. Light-emitting diodes are gradually replacing the remaining uses of light bulbs. The incandescent light bulb, incandescent lamp or incandescent light globe is a source of electric Light that works by Incandescence, (a general Note that none of these methods allows perpetual motion, as some energy is always lost to heat. The term perpetual motion, taken literally refers to movement that goes on forever

Mass transportation increases energy efficiency compared to widespread conventional automobile use while air travel is regarded as inefficient. Air travel is a form of Travel using an Airplane. The comfort experienced when traveling by air depends on several factors starting with the airport the Conventional combustion engine automobiles have continually improved their efficiency and may continue to do so in the future, for example by reducing weight with new materials. Hybrid vehicles can save energy by allowing the engine to run more efficiently, regaining energy from braking, turning off the motor when idling in traffic, etc. A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to propel the vehicle More efficient ceramic or diesel engines can improve mileage. The word ceramic is derived from the Greek word κεραμικός ( keramikos) Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum Electric vehicles such as Maglev, trolleybuses, and PHEVs are more efficient during use (but maybe not if doing a life cycle analysis) than similar current combustion based vehicles, reducing their energy consumption during use by 1/2 to 1/4. The Electric Vehicle was an American Automobile manufactured only in 1899 MAGLEV, or magnetic levitation, is a system of transportation that suspends guides and (usually propels vehicles predominantly trains using magnetic forces A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power Microcars or motorcycles may replace automobiles carrying only one or two people. A microcar is an extremely small Automobile, popularly referred to as Cyclecars in the 1910s and 1920s and Bubblecars in the 1950s and 1960s many of which Transportation efficiency may also be improved by in other ways, see automated highway system. An automated highway system (AHS or Smart Road is a proposed Intelligent transportation system technology designed to provide for Driverless cars on specific rights-of-way

Electricity distribution may change in the future. Electricity distribution is the penultimate stage in the delivery (before retail) of Electricity to end users New small scale energy sources may be placed closer to the consumers so that less energy is lost during electricity distribution. New technology like superconductivity or improved power factor correction may also decrease the energy lost. Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in certain Materials generally at very low Temperatures characterized by exactly zero electrical resistance Distributed generation permits electricity "consumers", who are generating

Energy transportation

See also: Pipeline transport

While new sources of energy are only rarely discovered or made possible by new technology, distribution technology continually evolves. Distributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation, embedded generation, decentralized generation, decentralized Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Distribution (or place) is one of the four elements of Marketing mix. The use of fuel cells in cars, for example, is an anticipated delivery technology. A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device It produces electricity from Fuel (on the Anode side and an oxidant (on the This section presents some of the more common delivery technologies that have been important to historic energy development. They all rely in some way on the energy sources listed in the previous section.

An elevated section of the Alaska Pipeline.
An elevated section of the Alaska Pipeline. The Trans-Alaska Pipeline System ( TAPS) usually called the Alyeska Pipeline in Alaska or the Alaska Pipeline elsewhere is a major U
Shipping is a flexible delivery technology that is used in the whole range of energy development regimes from primitive to highly advanced. Shipping is physical process of Transporting goods and Cargo. Currently, coal, petroleum and their derivatives are delivered by shipping via boat, rail, or road. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Petroleum and natural gas may also be delivered via pipeline and coal via a Slurry pipeline. Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. A slurry pipeline is used in mining to Transport Mineral concentrate from a mineral processing plant near a mine Refined hydrocarbon fuels such as gasoline and LPG may also be delivered via aircraft. Liquefied petroleum gas (also called LPG, GPL, LP Gas, or Autogas) is a mixture of Hydrocarbon Gases used as a Fuel Natural gas pipelines must maintain a certain minimum pressure to function correctly. Ethanol's corrosive properties prevent it from being transported via pipeline. The higher costs of ethanol transportation and storage are often prohibitive. [51]
Electricity grids are the networks used to transmit and distribute power from production source to end user, when the two may be hundreds of kilometres away. An electrical network is an interconnection of Electrical elements such as Resistors Inductors Capacitors Transmission lines Voltage Electric power transmission, a process in the delivery of Electricity to consumers is the bulk transfer of electrical power Electricity distribution is the penultimate stage in the delivery (before retail) of Electricity to end users Electric power is defined as the rate at which Electrical energy is transferred by an Electric circuit. Sources include electrical generation plants such as a nuclear reactor, coal burning power plant, etc. This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled A combination of sub-stations, transformers, towers, cables, and piping are used to maintain a constant flow of electricity. Towers are tall human-made Structures that are always taller than they are wide usually by a significant Margin. A cable is one or more Wires or Optical fibers bound together typically in a common protective jacket or sheath For other uses see Pipe. Within Industry, piping is a system of pipes used to convey Fluids ( Liquids and
Electric Grid: Pilons and cables distribute power
Electric Grid: Pilons and cables distribute power
Grids may suffer from transient blackouts and brownouts, often due to weather damage. A power outage (also known as power cut, power failure, power loss, or blackout) is the loss of the Electricity supply to an A power outage (also known as power cut, power failure, power loss, or blackout) is the loss of the Electricity supply to an During certain extreme space weather events solar wind can interfere with transmissions. Space weather is the concept of changing environmental conditions in Outer space. The solar wind is a Stream of charged particles&mdasha plasma &mdashthat are ejected from the upper atmosphere of the Sun.
Grids also have a predefined carrying capacity or load that cannot safely be exceeded. The supportable Population of an Organism, given the food habitat, water and other necessities available within an environment is known as the environment's When power requirements exceed what's available, failures are inevitable. To prevent problems, power is then rationed.
Industrialised countries such as Canada, the US, and Australia are among the highest per capita consumers of electricity in the world, which is possible thanks to a widespread electrical distribution network. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page The United States of America —commonly referred to as the For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. The US grid is one of the most advanced, although infrastructure maintenance is becoming a problem. Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids
CurrentEnergy provides a realtime overview of the electricity supply and demand for California, Texas, and the Northeast of the US. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. African countries with small scale electrical grids have a correspondingly low annual per capita usage of electricity. One of the most powerful power grids in the world supplies power to the state of Queensland, Australia. Queensland is a state of Australia, occupying the north-eastern corner of the mainland continent
Energy consumption from 1989 to 1999
Energy consumption from 1989 to 1999
Energy production from 1989 to 1999
Energy production from 1989 to 1999
Energy consumption per capita (2001). Red hues indicate increase, green hues decrease of consumption during the 1990s.
Energy consumption per capita (2001). Red hues indicate increase, green hues decrease of consumption during the 1990s.

Energy storage

Main articles: Energy storage, grid energy storage

Methods of energy storage have been developed, which transform electrical energy into forms of potential energy. Energy storage is the storing of some form of Energy that can be drawn upon at a later time to perform some useful operation Grid energy storage is used to manage the flow of electrical energy A method of energy storage may be chosen based on stability, ease of transport, ease of energy release, or ease of converting free energy from the natural form to the stable form.

Compressed air vehicles

Main articles: Compressed air vehicle, Air car

The Indian company, Tata, is planning to release a compressed air powered car in 2008. A compressed air vehicle is powered by an Air engine, using Compressed air, which is stored in a tank A Compressed air car is an alternative fuel car that uses a motor powered by compressed air

Battery-powered vehicles

Main articles: battery, battery electric vehicle

Batteries are used to store energy in a chemical form. In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery As an alternative energy, batteries can be used to store energy in battery electric vehicles. The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery Battery electric vehicles can be charged from the grid when the vehicle is not in use. Because the energy is derived from electricity, battery electric vehicles make it possible to use other forms of alternative energy such as wind, solar, geothermal, nuclear, or hydroelectric. Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water

Pros

Cons

Hydrogen economy

Main article: Hydrogen economy

Hydrogen can be manufactured at roughly 77 percent thermal efficiency by the method of steam reforming of natural gas. The hydrogen economy is a proposed method of deriving the Energy needed for Motive power (cars boats airplanes buildings or portable electronics by reacting [55] When manufactured by this method it is a derivative fuel like gasoline; when produced by electrolysis of water, it is a form of chemical energy storage as are storage batteries, though hydrogen is the more versatile storage mode since there are two options for its conversion to useful work: (1) a fuel cell can convert the chemicals hydrogen and oxygen into water, and in the process, produce electricity, or (2) hydrogen can be burned (less efficiently than in a fuel cell) in an internal combustion engine. In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device It produces electricity from Fuel (on the Anode side and an oxidant (on the Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the

Pros

Cons

Energy storage types

Some natural forms of energy are found in stable chemical compounds such as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Most systems of chemical energy storage result from biological activity, which store energy in chemical bonds. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Man-made forms of chemical energy storage include hydrogen fuel, synthetic hydrocarbon fuel, batteries and explosives such as cordite and dynamite. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Energy storage is the storing of some form of Energy that can be drawn upon at a later time to perform some useful operation In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied Cordite is a family of smokeless propellants developed and produced in the United Kingdom from 1889 to replace Gunpowder as a military propellant Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of Nitroglycerin, initially using Diatomaceous earth (kieselgur US Spelling kieselguhr
Dams can be used to store energy, by using excess energy to pump water into the reservoir. A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water while other structures such as Floodgates, Levees When electrical energy is required, the process is reversed. The water then turns a turbine, generating electricity. A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow Hydroelectric power is currently an important part of the world's energy supply, generating one-fifth of the world's electricity. Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water [58]
Electrical energy may be stored in capacitors. A capacitor is a passive electrical component that can store Energy in the Electric field between a pair of conductors Capacitors are often used to produce high intensity releases of energy (such as a camera's flash).
  • Pressure:
Energy may also be stored pressurized gases or alternatively in a vacuum. Pressure (symbol 'p' is the force per unit Area applied to an object in a direction perpendicular to the surface This vacuum means "absence of matter" or "an empty area or space" for the cleaning appliance see Vacuum cleaner. Compressed air, for example, may be used to operate vehicles and power tools. Large scale compressed air energy storage facilities are used to smooth out demands on electricity generation by providing energy during peak hours and storing energy during off-peak hours. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES refers to the compression of air to be used later as energy source Such systems save on expensive generating capacity since it only needs to meet average consumption rather than peak consumption. [59]
  • Flywheels and springs
Energy can also be stored in mechanical systems such as springs or flywheels. A spring is a flexible elastic object used to store mechanical Energy. Flywheel energy storage is currently being used for uninterruptible power supplies. Flywheel Energy Storage (FES works by accelerating a Rotor ( Flywheel) to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as Rotational energy An uninterruptible power supply ( UPS) also known as a continuous power supply ( CPS) or a battery backup is a device which maintains a continuous

Future energy development

World energy consumption.
World energy consumption.
An increasing share of world energy consumption is predicted to be used by developing nations. Source: EIA.
An increasing share of world energy consumption is predicted to be used by developing nations. Source: EIA.

Extrapolations from current knowledge to the future offer a choice of energy futures. Some predictions parallel the Malthusian catastrophe hypothesis. A Malthusian catastrophe (or Malthusian check, crisis, dilemma, disaster, trap, controls, or limit) is a return Numerous are complex models based scenarios as pioneered by Limits to Growth. Scientific modelling is the process of generating abstract, conceptual, Graphical and or mathematical models. A scenario (from Italian, that which is pinned to the scenery) is a synthetic description of an event or series of actions and events Limits to Growth is a 1972 book modeling the consequences of a rapidly growing World population and finite resource supplies commissioned by the Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. A Strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal, most often "winning Sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while preserving the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present Short term energy crises are also a concern of energy development. An energy crisis is any great bottleneck (or price Rise) in the supply of energy resources to an economy. Some extrapolations lack plausibility, particularly when they predict a continual increase in oil consumption.

Existing technologies for new energy sources, such as renewable energy technologies, particularly wind power and solar power, are promising. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Nuclear fission is also promoted, and each need sustained research and development, including consideration of possible harmful side effects. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may Research is defined as Human activity based on Intellectual application in the investigation of Matter. In Business and Engineering, new product development (NPD is the term used to describe the complete Process of bringing a new product or service Unintended consequences are outcomes that are not (or not limited to what the actor intended in a particular situation Jacques Cousteau spoke of using the salinization of water at river estuaries as an energy source, which would not have any consequences for a million years, and then stopped to point out that since we are going to be on the planet for a billion years we had to be looking that far into the future. Jacques-Yves Cousteau ( 11 June 1910 – 25 June 1997) was a French naval officer explorer, Ecologist, Nuclear fusion and artificial photosynthesis are other energy technologies being researched and developed. In Physics and Nuclear chemistry, nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple- like charged atomic nuclei join together to form a heavier nucleus Artificial photosynthesis is a research field that attempts to replicate the natural process of Photosynthesis, converting Sunlight, Water and Carbon

Energy production usually requires an energy investment. Drilling for oil or building a wind power plant requires energy. The fossil fuel resources (see above) that are left are often increasingly difficult to extract and convert. They may thus require increasingly higher energy investments. If the investment is greater than the energy produced, then the fossil resource is no longer an energy source. This means that a large part of the fossil fuel resources and especially the non-conventional ones cannot be used for energy production today. Such resources may still be exploited economically in order to produce raw materials for plastics, fertilizers or even transportation fuel but now more energy is consumed than produced. Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant (They then become similar to ordinary mining reserves, economically recoverable but not net positive energy sources. ) New technology may ameliorate this problem if it can lower the energy investment required to extract and convert the resources, although ultimately basic physics sets limits that cannot be exceeded.

It should be noted that between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the globe, world grain production increased by 250%. The Green Revolution refers to the transformation of Agriculture that began in 1945 at the request of the Mexican government to establish an agricultural research station to Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The energy for the Green Revolution was provided by fossil fuels in the form of fertilizers (natural gas), pesticides (oil), and hydrocarbon fueled irrigation. Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. In Organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an Organic compound consisting entirely of Hydrogen and Carbon. Irrigation is an artificial application of water to the soil usually for assisting in growing crops [60] The peaking of world hydrocarbon production (Peak oil) may test Malthus critics. Thomas Robert Malthus FRS (13 February 1766 – 23 December 1834 was an English political economist and demographer who expressed views [61]

History of predictions about future energy development

Ever since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, the question of the future of energy supplies has occupied economists. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the

(Data from Kahn et al. (1976) pp. 94–5 infra)

The history of perpetual motion machines is a long list of failed and sometimes fraudulent inventions of machines which produce useful energy "from nowhere" — that is, without requiring additional energy input. The history of perpetual motion machines dates back to the Middle Ages.

See also

Main list: List of basic energy development topics

Notes

  1. ^ Advanced Technologies & Energy Efficiency. Avoiding Dangerous Climate Change A Scientific Symposium on Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gases was a 2005 international conference that examined the link between atmospheric Greenhouse Energy planning has a number of different meanings However one common meaning of the term is the process of developing long-range policies to help guide the future of a local national See also Nuclear energy policy Energy policy is the manner in which a given entity (often governmental has decided to address issues of Energy development The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal state and local public entities in the United States, which address issues of energy production distribution Modern technology uses large amounts of electrical power This is normally generated at Power plants which convert some other kind of energy into electrical power This is a list of emerging technologies. Emerging technologies are new and potentially Disruptive technologies, which may marginalize an existing dominant technology The Natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is all living and non-living things that occur naturally on Earth or some part See also Nuclear power Nuclear energy policy is a national and international Policy concerning some or all aspects of Nuclear energy, such as Renewable energy development covers the advancement capacity growth and use of Renewable energy sources U.S. DoE / U.S. EPA. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Retrieved on 2008-01-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy.
  2. ^ Heat Island Group Home Page. Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (August 30, 2000). The Ernest Orlando Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory ( LBNL) is a U Retrieved on 2008-01-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy.
  3. ^ Environmental impacts of coal power: air pollution. Union of Concerned Scientists (08/18/05). History The Union of Concerned Scientists was founded in 1969 by faculty and students of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, located in Cambridge Massachusetts Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  4. ^ http://www.pppl.gov/polImage.cfm?doc_Id=44&size_code=Doc
  5. ^ Big Rig Building Boom. Rigzone. com (April 13, 2006). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  6. ^ David Pimentel; Tad W. Patzek (March 2005). "Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass, and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean and Sunflower" (PDF). Natural Resources Research Vol. 14, No. 1. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  7. ^ Tad Patzek (11. 5. 06). Why cellulosic ethanol will not save us?. VentureBeat. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  8. ^ Energy at the crossroads (PDF). Retrieved on 2008-01-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC
  9. ^ a b Supply of Uranium. World Nuclear Association (March 2007). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  10. ^ The Economics of Nuclear Power. World Nuclear Association (June 2007). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  11. ^ Uranium Resources and Nuclear Energy
  12. ^ Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen; Philip Smith (30 July 2005). "Nuclear Energy: the Energy Balance" (PDF). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  13. ^ Thorium. World Nuclear Association (September 2007). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  14. ^ a b Pallava Bagla (2005-08-19). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Rethinking Nuclear Power: India's Homegrown Thorium Reactor (English). Science (magazine). Retrieved on 2008-04-12. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 467 - Anthemius is elevated to Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
  15. ^ a b Waste Management in the Nuclear Fuel Cycle. World Nuclear Association (April 2007). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  16. ^ a b John McCarthy (2006). John McCarthy (born September 4, 1927, in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American Computer scientist and Cognitive Facts From Cohen and Others. Progress and its Sustainability. Stanford. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  17. ^ China's Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR) Program. Nuclear Threat Initiative (02/06/2004). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  18. ^ Gary Crawley. “Risks vs. Benefits in Energy Production” (PDF). Science Foundation Ireland. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor ]
  19. ^ Brendan Nicholson (June 5, 2006). "Nuclear power 'cheaper, safer' than coal and gas". The Age. The Age is a Broadsheet daily Newspaper, which has been published in Melbourne, Australia since 1854 Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  20. ^ Peter Schwartz; Spencer Reiss (February 2005). "Nuclear Now!". Wired. Wired is a full-color monthly American Magazine and on-line periodical published in San Francisco, California since March 1993 Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  21. ^ Accelerator-driven Nuclear Energy. World Nuclear Association (August 2003). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  22. ^ Energy Analysis of Power Systems. World Nuclear Association (March 2006). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  23. ^ Coming Clean; How Clean is Nuclear Energy? (October 2000). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor "World Information Service on Energy" 10-18 years for payback on nuclear energy, Jan Willem Storm van Leeuwen; Philip Smith (30 July 2005). "Nuclear Energy: the Energy Balance" (PDF). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  24. ^ Advanced Nuclear Power Reactors. Australian Uranium Association (January 2008). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  25. ^ Spencer Reiss (September 2004). "Let a Thousand Reactors Bloom". Wired. Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  26. ^ Plans For New Reactors Worldwide. World Nuclear Association (October 2007). Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
  27. ^ Charles D. Ferguson (April 2007). Nuclear Energy: Balancing Benefits and Risks (PDF). Council on Foreign Relations. The Council on Foreign Relations ( CFR) is an American Nonpartisan foreign policy membership organization founded in 1921 and based at 58 East 68th Street (at Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
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References

Relevant journals

External links

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