Elizabeth I
Queen of England and Ireland (more...)
The Rainbow Portrait by an unknown artist, 1600
Reign	17 November 1558 – 24 March 1603
Coronation	15 January 1559
Predecessor	Mary I
Successor	James I
Royal house	House of Tudor
Father	Henry VIII
Mother	Anne Boleyn
Born	7 September 1533 Greenwich, England
Died	24 March 1603 (aged 69) Richmond, England
Burial	Westminster Abbey

Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death. The precise style of British Sovereigns has varied over the years The artists of the Tudor court are the painters and limners engaged by the Monarchs of England's Tudor dynasty and their Courtiers Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Events 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon lays siege to Jerusalem under Zedekiah 's reign Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James A royal house or royal dynasty is a familial designation or Family name of sorts used by Royalty. The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor was an English royal Dynasty that lasted 118 years from 1485 to 1603 a period known as the Tudor period Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of Anne Boleyn (1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536 was the Queen of England as the second wife of Henry VIII of England. Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Greenwich ( ˈɡrɛnɪtʃ GREN-itch /ˈɡrɛnɪdʒ/ GREN-idge or /ˈɡrɪnɪdʒ/ GRIN-idge is a district in south-east London, England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Richmond is a town and the principal settlement of the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames in England. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, which is almost always referred to by its original name of Westminster Abbey, is a large mainly Gothic church Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland The Kings of Wessex, who conquered Kent and Sussex from Mercia in 825 became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during The designation King of Ireland (Rí na hÉireann and Queen (regnant of Ireland was used during three periods of Irish history. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Sometimes called The Virgin Queen, Gloriana or Good Queen Bess, Elizabeth was the sixth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty. The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor was an English royal Dynasty that lasted 118 years from 1485 to 1603 a period known as the Tudor period The daughter of Henry VIII, she was born a princess, but her mother, Anne Boleyn, was executed three years after her birth, and Elizabeth was declared illegitimate. Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of Anne Boleyn (1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536 was the Queen of England as the second wife of Henry VIII of England. Perhaps for that reason, her brother, Edward VI, cut her out of the succession. Edward VI (12 October 1537 &ndash 6 July 1553 became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 and was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine His will, however, was set aside, as it contravened the Third Succession Act of 1543, in which Elizabeth was named as successor provided that Mary I of England, Elizabeth's half-sister, should die without issue. The Third Succession Act of Henry VIII's reign was passed by the Parliament of England in mid-1543 and returned both Mary and Elizabeth to the Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death In 1558, Elizabeth succeeded Mary, during whose reign she had been imprisoned for nearly a year on suspicion of supporting Protestant rebels. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation.

Elizabeth set out to rule by good counsel,^[1] and she depended heavily on a group of trusted advisers led by William Cecil, Baron Burghley. Lord Burghley redirects here For other holders of the title see Baron Burghley William Cecil 1st Baron Burghley (13 September 1520 &ndash One of her first moves was to support the establishment of an English Protestant church, of which she became the Supreme Governor. The Supreme Governor of the Church of England is a title held by the British Monarchs which signifies their titular leadership over the Church of England. This Elizabethan Religious Settlement held firm throughout her reign and later evolved into today's Church of England. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement was Elizabeth I ’s response to the religious divisions created over the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican It was expected that Elizabeth would marry, but despite several petitions from parliament, she never did. The reasons for this choice are unknown, and they have been much debated. As she grew older, Elizabeth became famous for her virginity, and a cult grew up around her which was celebrated in the portraits, pageants and literature of the day.

In government, Elizabeth was more conservative than her father and siblings. ^[2] One of her mottos was video et taceo: "I see, and say nothing". ^[3] This strategy, viewed with impatience by her counsellors, often saved her from political and martial misalliances. Though Elizabeth was cautious in foreign affairs and only half-heartedly supported a number of ineffective, poorly resourced military campaigns in the Netherlands, France and Ireland, the defeat of the Spanish armada in 1588 associated her name forever with what is popularly viewed as one of the greatest victories in British history. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world The Spanish Armada ( Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, "Great and Most Fortunate Navy" or Armada Invencible, "Invincible Within twenty years of her death, she was being celebrated as the ruler of a golden age, an image that retains its hold on the English people. Elizabeth's reign is known as the Elizabethan era, famous above all for the flourishing of English drama, led by playwrights such as William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe, and for the seafaring prowess of English adventurers such as Francis Drake and slave-trader John Hawkins. Romance and reality The Victorian era and the early twentieth century idealised the Elizabethan era English Renaissance theatre is English drama written between the Reformation and the closure of the theatres in 1642. William Shakespeare ( baptised Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral, (c 1540 &ndash 27 January 1595 was an English Privateer, navigator, Slaver, and politician Admiral Sir John Hawkins (also spelled as John Hawkyns) ( Plymouth 1532 &ndash November 12 1595) was an English shipbuilder

Historians, however, tend to be more cautious in their assessment. They often depict Elizabeth as a short-tempered,^[4] sometimes indecisive ruler,^[5] who enjoyed more than her share of luck. Towards the end of her reign, a series of economic and military problems weakened her popularity to the point where many of her subjects were relieved at her death. Elizabeth is however acknowledged by historians as a charismatic performer and a dogged survivor, in an age when government was ramshackle and limited and when monarchs in neighbouring countries faced internal problems that jeopardised their thrones. The word charisma (origin from the Greek word χάρισμα (kharisma, "gift" or "divine favor" from kharizesthai, "to favor" Such was the case with Elizabeth's rival, Mary, Queen of Scots, whom she imprisoned in 1568 and eventually executed in 1587. After the short reigns of Elizabeth's brother and sister, her forty-five years on the throne provided valuable stability for the kingdom and helped forge a sense of national identity. ^[2]

Early life

Elizabeth Tudor, c. 1546, by an unknown artist. The simplicity of this portrait contrasts with the ornate icons that came later. ^[6]

Elizabeth was born in Greenwich Palace on 7 September 1533 and named after both her paternal and maternal grandmothers, Elizabeth of York and Elizabeth Howard . The Palace of Placentia was an English Royal Palace built by Humphrey Duke of Gloucester in 1447 in Greenwich, on the banks of the Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Elizabeth of York (11 February 1466 &ndash 11 February 1503 was the Queen Consort of King Henry VII of England, whom she married in 1486 ^[7] She was the second legitimate child of Henry VIII of England to survive infancy; her mother was Henry's second wife, Anne Boleyn. Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of Anne Boleyn (1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536 was the Queen of England as the second wife of Henry VIII of England. At birth, Elizabeth was the heiress presumptive to the throne of England. An heir presumptive is the person provisionally scheduled to inherit a throne peerage or other hereditary honor but whose position can be displaced by the birth of an Heir apparent Her older half-sister, Mary, had lost her position as legitimate heir when Henry annulled his marriage to Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, in order to marry Anne. Catherine of Aragon (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536 also known as Catharine, Katherine or Katharine ( Castilian Infanta Catalina ^[8][9] King Henry had desperately wanted a legitimate son, to ensure the Tudor succession. After Elizabeth's birth, Queen Anne failed to provide a male heir. She suffered at least two miscarriages, one in 1534 and another at the beginning of 1536. On 2 May 1536, she was arrested and imprisoned. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. Hastily convicted on trumped-up charges, she was beheaded on 19 May 1536. Decapitation (from Latin, caput, capitis, meaning head or beheading, is the cutting off of the head of a person or animal Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and ^[10][11]

Elizabeth, who was 2 years, 8 months, old at the time, was declared illegitimate and deprived of the title of princess. ^[12] Eleven days after Anne Boleyn's death, Henry married Jane Seymour,^[13] who died 12 days after the birth of their son, Prince Edward. Jane Seymour (1508– 24 October 1537) was Queen Consort of England and the third wife of Henry VIII. Edward VI (12 October 1537 &ndash 6 July 1553 became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 and was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine Elizabeth was placed in Edward's household and carried the chrisom, or baptismal cloth, at his christening. Anciently a chrisom was the face-cloth or piece of linen laid over a child's head when he was baptized or christened ^[14]

The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul, a manuscript translation from the French, by Elizabeth, aged 11, presented to Catherine Parr in 1544. The Miroir or Glasse of the Synneful Soul is a Manuscript book that was given to queen Katherine Parr of England by her stepdaughter the Catherine Parr ( c 1512 &ndash 5 September 1548 also known as Katherine or Katharine Parr(e, was the last of the six wives of Henry The embroidered binding with the monogram KP for "Katherin Parr" is believed to have been worked by Elizabeth. ^[15]

Elizabeth's first governess, Lady Margaret Bryan, wrote that she was “as toward a child and as gentle of conditions as ever I knew any in my life”. Margaret Baroness Bryan (ca 1468 - 1551/52 was Lady Governess of all Henry VIII 's children Princess Mary; Henry FitzRoy; Princess Elizabeth ^[16] At the age of four, Elizabeth passed into the care of Catherine Champernowne, better known by her later, married name of Catherine “Kat” Ashley, who remained Elizabeth’s friend for life. Champernowne clearly made a good job of Elizabeth’s early education: by the time William Grindal became her tutor in 1544, Elizabeth could write English, Latin, and Italian. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Italian ( or lingua italiana) is a Romance language spoken by about 63 million people as a First language, primarily in Italy. Under Grindal, a talented and skillful tutor, she also progressed in French and Greek. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly ^[17] After Grindal died in 1548, Elizabeth received her education under Roger Ascham, a sympathetic teacher who believed that learning should be fun. Roger Ascham (c 1515 - 23 December 1568) English scholar and didactic writer famous for his prose style his promotion of the vernacular ^[18] By the time her formal education ended in 1550, she was the best educated woman of her generation. ^[19]

Thomas Seymour

Henry VIII died in 1547, when Elizabeth was 13 years old, and was succeeded by her half brother, Edward VI. Edward VI (12 October 1537 &ndash 6 July 1553 became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 and was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine Catherine Parr, Henry's last wife, soon married Thomas Seymour of Sudeley, Edward VI's uncle and the brother of the Lord Protector, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset. Catherine Parr ( c 1512 &ndash 5 September 1548 also known as Katherine or Katharine Parr(e, was the last of the six wives of Henry Thomas Seymour 1st Baron Seymour of Sudeley (c 1508 &ndash March 20, 1549) was a son of Sir John Seymour and the former Margarey Wentworth } Edward Seymour 1st Duke of Somerset (c 1506 &ndash 22nd January 1552 was Lord Protector of England in the period between the death of Henry VIII in The couple took Elizabeth into their household at Chelsea. There Elizabeth experienced an emotional crisis that historians believe affected her for the rest of her life. ^[20] Seymour, approaching forty but with a natural charm and "a powerful sex appeal",^[20] engaged in romps and horseplay with the fifteen-year-old Elizabeth. These included entering her bedroom in his nightgown, tickling her and slapping her on the buttocks. This state of affairs was put to a stop by Catherine Parr, after she discovered the pair in an embrace. ^[21][22] In May 1548, Elizabeth was sent away. ^[23]

That was not the last of the matter, however. Seymour was ambitious and scheming to control the royal family. ^[24][25] When Catherine Parr died of puerperal fever after childbirth on 5 September 1548, he renewed his attentions towards Elizabeth, intent on wedding her. Puerperal fever (from the Latin puer, child) also called childbed fever, can develop into puerperal sepsis, which is a serious Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris. ^[26] For his brother and the council, this was the last straw. ^[27] In January 1549, Seymour was arrested on suspicion of plotting to marry Elizabeth and overthrow his brother. The details of his former behaviour towards Elizabeth emerged during an interrogation of Catherine Ashley and Thomas Parry, Elizabeth’s cofferer. Sir Thomas Parry (c 1515 &ndash December 15 1560) was the Comptroller of the Household to the English Queen Elizabeth I. In the history of the royal household of England, a cofferer was a principal officer in the court next under the Comptroller of the Household. ^[28] Elizabeth, living at Hatfield House, would admit nothing. Hatfield House is a Country house set in a large park the Great Park on the eastern side of the town of Hatfield, Hertfordshire, England. Her stubbornness exasperated her interrogator, Sir Robert Tyrwhitt, who reported, "I do see it in her face that she is guilty". ^[27] Seymour was beheaded on 20 March 1549. Events 1600 - The Linköping Bloodbath takes place on Maundy Thursday in Linköping, Sweden. Elizabeth was aged 15 and a half.

Queen Mary

Queen Mary I, by Antonis Mor, 1554. Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death For the musician see Anthony More (musician. Sir Antonis Mor (c Mary imprisoned Elizabeth in the Tower of London for suspected collaboration with the rebel Thomas Wyatt. Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London (and historically as The Tower) is a historic monument in central London Sir Thomas Wyatt the younger (1521 – 11 April, 1554) was a rebel leader during the reign of Queen Mary I of England; his rising is traditionally called

Edward VI died of tuberculosis on 6 July 1553, aged fifteen. Edward VI (12 October 1537 &ndash 6 July 1553 became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 and was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Events 1044 - The Battle of Ménfő takes place 1189 - Richard the Lionheart is crowned King of England His will swept aside the 1543 Act of Succession, excluded both Mary and Elizabeth from the succession, and instead declared as his heir Lady Jane Grey, granddaughter of Henry VIII's sister Mary, Duchess of Suffolk. The Third Succession Act of Henry VIII's reign was passed by the Parliament of England in mid-1543 and returned both Mary and Elizabeth to the Lady Jane Grey (1536/1537&ndash 12 February 1554) also referred to as Queen Jane, a greatniece of Henry VIII of England, was a claimant This article is about Mary Queen consort of France. For her niece and namesake Mary Tudor Queen regnant of England, see Mary I ^[29] Lady Jane was proclaimed queen, but her support quickly crumbled away, and she was deposed less than two weeks later. Deposition by Political means concerns the removal of a Politician or Monarch. Mary rode triumphantly into London, with Elizabeth at her side. ^[30]

The show of solidarity between the sisters did not last long. Mary was determined to crush the Protestant faith in which Elizabeth had been educated, and she ordered that everyone attend Mass. The Mass is the Eucharistic celebration in the Latin liturgical rites of the Roman Catholic Church. This included Elizabeth, who had no choice but outwardly to conform. ^[31] Mary's initial popularity ebbed away when it became known that she planned to marry Prince Philip of Spain, the son of Emperor Charles V. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was ^[32] Discontent spread rapidly through the country, and many looked to Elizabeth as a focus for their opposition to Mary's religious policies. In January and February 1554, uprisings broke out (known as Wyatt's rebellion) in several parts of England and Wales, led by Thomas Wyatt. Wyatt's Rebellion was a popular uprising in England in 1554 named for Thomas Wyatt the younger, one of its leaders Sir Thomas Wyatt the younger (1521 – 11 April, 1554) was a rebel leader during the reign of Queen Mary I of England; his rising is traditionally called ^[33]

Once the rising had collapsed, Elizabeth was brought to court and interrogated. On 18 March, she was imprisoned in the Tower of London, where Lady Jane Grey had been executed on 12 February to deter the rebels. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Her Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress, more commonly known as the Tower of London (and historically as The Tower) is a historic monument in central London Events 1429 - English Forces under Sir John Fastolf defend a supply convoy carrying rations to the army besieging Orleans from attack by the ^[34] The terrified Elizabeth fervently protested her innocence. ^[35] Though it is unlikely that she had plotted with the rebels, some of them were known to have approached her. Mary's closest confidant, Charles V's ambassador Simon Renard, argued that her throne would never be safe while Elizabeth lived; and the Chancellor, Stephen Gardiner, worked to have Elizabeth put on trial. For the British architect see Stephen Gardiner (architect. Stephen Gardiner (c ^[36] However, Elizabeth's supporters in the government, among them Lord Paget, convinced Mary to spare her sister in the absence of hard evidence against her. William Paget 1st Baron Paget of Beaudesert (1506&ndash June 9,1563 English Statesman, son of William Paget one of the serjeants-at-mace of the On 22 May, therefore, Elizabeth was moved from the Tower to Woodstock, where she was to spend almost a year under house arrest in the charge of Sir Henry Bedingfield. Events 334 BC - The Greek army of Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of the Granicus. Woodstock is a small Town in Oxfordshire, England which is home to Blenheim Palace, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, where Sir Henry Bedingfeld (1509 x 1511 &ndash 1583 of Oxburgh Hall, King's Lynn, Norfolk,was the eldest son of Sir Edmund Bedingfield (1479/80-1553 Crowds cheered her all along the way. ^[37][38]

The remaining wing of the Old Palace, Hatfield House. Hatfield House is a Country house set in a large park the Great Park on the eastern side of the town of Hatfield, Hertfordshire, England. It was here that Elizabeth was told of her sister's death in November 1558.

On 17 April 1555, Elizabeth was recalled to court to be closely attended during the final stages of Mary's apparent pregnancy. Events 69 - After the First Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius becomes Roman Emperor. If Mary and her child died, Elizabeth would become queen. If, on the other hand, Mary gave birth to a healthy child, Elizabeth's chances of becoming queen would recede sharply. ^[37] When it became clear that Mary was not pregnant, no one believed any longer that she could have a child. ^[39] Elizabeth's succession seemed assured. ^[40] Even Philip, who became King of Spain in 1556, acknowledged the new political reality. From this time forward, he cultivated Elizabeth, preferring her to the likely alternative, Mary, Queen of Scots, who was betrothed to the Dauphin of France. Francis II (François II (19 January 1544 &ndash 5 December 1560 King-consort of Scotland (1558&ndash1560 and King of France (1559 &ndash 1560 was born ^[41] When his wife fell ill in 1558, Philip sent the Count of Feria to consult with Elizabeth. ^[42] By October, Elizabeth was making plans for her government. On 6 November, Mary recognised Elizabeth as her heir. Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with ^[43][44]

Queen Elizabeth

Elizabeth became queen at the age of 25. As her triumphal progress wound through the city on the eve of the coronation ceremony, she was welcomed wholeheartedly by the citizens and greeted by orations and pageants, most with a strong Protestant flavour. The Royal Entry, also known by various other names including Triumphal Entry and Joyous Entry, embraced the ceremonial and festivities accompanying a A coronation is a ceremony marking the investiture of a Monarch with regal power specifically involving the placement of a crown upon his or her head and the Elizabeth's open and gracious responses endeared her to the spectators, who were "wonderfully ravished". ^[45] The following day, 15 January 1559, Elizabeth was crowned at Westminster Abbey and anointed by the Catholic bishop of Carlisle. Events 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon lays siege to Jerusalem under Zedekiah 's reign The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, which is almost always referred to by its original name of Westminster Abbey, is a large mainly Gothic church Then she was presented for the people's acceptance, amidst a deafening noise of organs, fifes, trumpets, drums, and bells. ^[46]

Elizabeth I in her coronation robes, patterned with Tudor roses and trimmed with ermine. The Tudor rose (sometimes called the English Rose is a traditional heraldic emblem of England and takes its name and origins from the Tudor dynasty She wears her hair loose, as traditional for the coronation of a queen, perhaps also as a symbol of virginity. ^[47] The painting dates to the first decade of the seventeenth century and is based on a lost original. ^[48]

On 20 November 1558, Elizabeth declared her intentions to her Council and other peers who had come to Hatfield to swear allegiance. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, The speech contains the first record of her often-used metaphor of the "two bodies": the body natural and the body politic:

My lords, the law of nature moves me to sorrow for my sister; the burden that is fallen upon me makes me amazed, and yet, considering I am God's creature, ordained to obey His appointment, I will thereto yield, desiring from the bottom of my heart that I may have assistance of His grace to be the minister of His heavenly will in this office now committed to me. Body politic or body corporate and politic means a State or one of its subordinate Civil authorities, such as a Province, Prefecture And as I am but one body naturally considered, though by His permission a body politic to govern, so shall I desire you all. . . to be assistant to me, that I with my ruling and you with your service may make a good account to Almighty God and leave some comfort to our posterity on earth. I mean to direct all my actions by good advice and counsel. ^[49]

Religion

Main article: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

Elizabeth was in no doubt that her most powerful lords wished her to repudiate the Pope and Spanish influence. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement was Elizabeth I ’s response to the religious divisions created over the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and This chimed with her own conscience and the policies of Sir William Cecil, her Secretary of State, and her chief advisors. Secretary of State is a commonly used title for a Government Official. She also knew that the papacy would never recognise her as the legitimate child of Henry VIII and the rightful ruler of England. ^[50] She therefore determined to establish a Protestant church suited to the needs of the English people. As a result, the parliament of 1559 legislated for a church based on the settlement of Edward VI, with the monarch as its head. ^[51] The House of Commons backed the proposals strongly, but the bill of supremacy met opposition in the House of Lords, particularly from the bishops. The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords The House of Lords is the second house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is also commonly referred to as "the Lords" Elizabeth was fortunate, however, that many bishoprics were vacant at the time, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the ^[52][53] This enabled the Protestant peers to outvote the bishops and conservative peers.

After various negotiations and changes to the wording, the new Act of Supremacy became law on 8 May 1559. The Act of Supremacy 1559 (1 Eliz c 1 was an Act of the Parliament of England, passed under the auspices of Queen Elizabeth I of England. Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen Elizabeth's title was agreed to be Supreme Governor of the Church of England rather than the more contentious Supreme Head. The Supreme Governor of the Church of England is a title held by the British Monarchs which signifies their titular leadership over the Church of England. Supreme Head of the Church of England was a title held by King Henry VIII of England signifying his leadership of the Church of England. All public officials were to swear an oath of loyalty to the monarch as the supreme governor or risk disqualification from office; however, the heresy laws were repealed, to avoid a repeat of the persecution of dissenters practised by Mary. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief At the same time, a new Act of Uniformity was passed, which made attendance at church and the use of an adapted version of the 1552 Book of Common Prayer compulsory, though the penalties for disobedience were not extreme. The Act of Uniformity in 1559 set the order of Prayer to be used in the English Book of Common Prayer. The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. ^[54]

Many Catholics, particularly on the continent, regarded Elizabeth as nothing more than an illegitimate heretic. In 1570, Pope Pius V excommunicated her, calling her the "pretended queen of England". Pope Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community This sanction, which in theory released English Catholics from allegiance to Elizabeth, served only to identify the English church more closely with the crown. It also placed English Catholics in great danger. By encouraging them to rebel, it raised doubts about their loyalty to the queen. ^[55]

Marriage question

Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, attributed to Steven van der Meulen, 1560s. Robert Dudley 1st Earl of Leicester ( 24 June 1532 /1533 &ndash 4 September 1588) was the long standing Favourite of Elizabeth Elizabeth's friendship with Dudley, her foremost favourite, lasted for over thirty years. In historical writings when used in reference to a person favourite ( British English and the English of Commonwealth Countries or favorite ( American

From the start of Elizabeth's reign, the question arose of who she would marry. However, she never married, and the reasons for this are not clear. Historians have speculated that Thomas Seymour had put her off sexual relationships, or that she knew herself to be infertile. ^[56][57] Until bearing a child became impossible, she considered several suitors, the last courtship ending in 1581 when Elizabeth was aged 48, François, Duke of Anjou (22 years her junior). Hercule François Duke of Anjou and Alençon, often simply referred to as "the Duke of Alençon" ( March 18, 1555 &ndash June 19 However, Elizabeth had no need of a man's help to govern, and marrying risked a loss of control or of foreign interference in her affairs, as had happened to her sister Mary. On the other hand, marriage offered the chance of an heir. ^[58]

Elizabeth often received offers of marriage, but she only seriously considered three or four suitors for any length of time. Of these, her childhood friend Robert Dudley probably came closest. Robert Dudley 1st Earl of Leicester ( 24 June 1532 /1533 &ndash 4 September 1588) was the long standing Favourite of Elizabeth During 1559, Elizabeth's friendship with the married Dudley seems to have turned to love. Rumour spread through the court that she was sleeping with him;^[59] William Cecil, Elizabeth's most trusted advisor, made clear his disapproval. When Dudley's wife, Amy Robsart, was found dead in 1560, under ambiguous circumstances, a great scandal arose. Amy Robsart ( 7 June 1532 – 8 September 1560) also known as Amy Lady Dudley was an English Noblewoman, who ^[60] For a time, Elizabeth seriously considered marrying Dudley; but after several months, she put duty ahead of her feelings and decided against the marriage. Dudley, whom she made Earl of Leicester and appointed to the Privy Council, retained a special place in her heart, though her infatuation mellowed in time to a special and lasting friendship. A privy council is a body that advises the Head of state of a nation on how to exercise their executive authority, typically but not always in the context of a After Elizabeth died, a note from Dudley, who had died in 1588, was found among her possessions, marked "his last letter". ^[61]

After the Dudley affair, Elizabeth kept the marriage question open but often only as a diplomatic ploy. ^[62] She appears to have considered marriage out of duty rather than personal preference. Parliament repeatedly petitioned her to marry, but she always answered evasively. ^[63] In 1563, she told an imperial envoy: "If I follow the inclination of my nature, it is this: beggar-woman and single, far rather than queen and married". ^[62] In the same year, following Elizabeth's illness with smallpox, the succession question became a heated issue. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Parliament urged the queen to marry or nominate an heir, to prevent a civil war upon her death. A civil war is a War between a State and domestic political actors that are in control of some part of the territory claimed by the state She refused to do either. In April, she prorogued the Parliament, which did not reconvene until she needed its support to raise taxes in 1566. A parliamentary session is a period of time where the Legislature in a Parliamentary government is sitting The House of Commons threatened to withhold funds until she agreed to provide for the succession. The House of Commons' is the Lower house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which also comprises the Sovereign and the House of Lords In 1566, Sir Robert Bell boldly pursued the issue despite Elizabeth's command to desist and became the target of her anger "in her own words: 'Mr. Sir Robert Bell (Unknown &mdash d 1577 of Beaupre Hall, Norfolk, was a Speaker of the House of Commons (1572-1576 who served during the Bell with his complices must needs prefer their speeches to the upper house to have you my lords, consent with them, whereby you were seduced, and of simplicity did assent unto it'. "^[64]

In 1566, she confided to the Spanish ambassador that if she could find a way to settle the succession without marrying, she would do so. By 1570, senior figures in the government privately accepted that Elizabeth would never marry or name a successor. William Cecil was already seeking solutions to the succession problem. ^[62] For this stance, as for her failure to marry, she was often accused of irresponsibility. ^[65] However, Elizabeth's silence strengthened her own political security: she knew that if she named an heir, her throne would be vulnerable to a coup. ^[66]

Elizabeth's unmarried status inspired a cult of virginity. In poetry and portraiture, she was depicted as a virgin or a goddess or both, not as a normal woman. ^[67] At first, only Elizabeth made a virtue of her virginity: in 1559, she told the Commons, "And, in the end, this shall be for me sufficient, that a marble stone shall declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and died a virgin". ^[67] Later on, particularly after 1578, poets and writers took up the theme and turned it into an iconography that exalted Elizabeth. Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images In an age of metaphors and conceits, she was portrayed as married to her kingdom and subjects, under divine protection. Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects Aside from its common usage signifying "excessive pride" in literary terms a conceit is an Extended metaphor with a complex Logic that governs In 1599, Elizabeth spoke of "all my husbands, my good people". ^[68]

Foreign policy

François, Duke of Anjou, by Nicholas Hilliard. Hercule François Duke of Anjou and Alençon, often simply referred to as "the Duke of Alençon" ( March 18, 1555 &ndash June 19 Nicholas Hilliard (c 1547&ndash January 7, 1619) was an English Goldsmith and limner best known for his Portrait miniatures Elizabeth called the duke her "frog", finding him "not so deformed" as she had been led to expect. ^[69]

Apart from the Dudley affair, Elizabeth treated the marriage issue as an aspect of foreign policy. ^[70] Though she turned down Philip II's own offer in 1559, she negotiated for several years to marry his cousin Archduke Charles of Austria. Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 However, relations with the Habsburgs deteriorated by 1568. Elizabeth then considered marriage to two French Valois princes in turn, first Henri, Duke of Anjou, and later, from 1572 to 1581, his brother François, Duke of Anjou. See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and Henry III of France (Henri III Henryk ( September 19 1551 – August 2, 1589) Hercule François Duke of Anjou and Alençon, often simply referred to as "the Duke of Alençon" ( March 18, 1555 &ndash June 19 ^[71] This last proposal was tied to a planned alliance against Spanish control of the Southern Netherlands. The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish ^[72] Elizabeth seems to have taken the courtship seriously for a time. She even wore a frog-shaped earring that Anjou had sent her. ^[73]

Elizabeth's foreign policy was largely defensive. The exception was the disastrous occupation of Le Havre from October 1562 to June 1563, when Elizabeth's Huguenot allies joined with the Catholics to retake the port. Le Havre is a city in the northwest region of France situated on the right bank of the mouth of the Seine River as it outlets into the Bay of the Seine The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (or French Calvinists) from the sixteenth to the eighteenth Elizabeth had intended to exchange Le Havre for Calais, retaken by France in January 1558. Calais (kaˈlɛ in English often kæˈleɪ traditional English pronunciation /ˈkælɨs/ Kales is a town in northern France. ^[74] She sent troops into Scotland in 1560 to prevent the French using it as a base. ^[75] In 1585, she signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch to block the Spanish threat to England. The Treaty of Nonsuch was signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Netherlands on August 20, 1585 at Nonsuch Palace in Surrey ^[76] Only through the activities of her fleets did Elizabeth pursue an aggressive policy. This paid off in the war against Spain, 80% of which was fought at sea. ^[77] She knighted Francis Drake after his circumnavigation of the globe from 1577 to 1580, and he won fame for his raids on Spanish ports and fleets. Sir Francis Drake, Vice Admiral, (c 1540 &ndash 27 January 1595 was an English Privateer, navigator, Slaver, and politician Her reign also saw the first colonisation or "planting" of new land in North America; and the colony of Virginia was named for her. Plantation was an early method of colonization in which settlers were 'planted' abroad in order to establish a permanent or semi-permanent colonial base The Colony of Virginia (also known frequently as the Virginia Colony and occasionally as the Dominion and Colony of Virginia) was the English colony In truth, however, an element of piracy and self-enrichment drove Elizabethan seafarers, over which the queen had little control. Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering ^[78][79]

Scotland

Mary, Queen of Scots. School of François Clouet

Elizabeth's first policy toward Scotland was to oppose the French presence there. François Clouet (c 1510 &ndash 22 December 1572) son of Jean Clouet, was a French Renaissance Miniaturist and painter particularly ^[80] She feared that the French planned to invade England and put Mary, Queen of Scots, who was in effect the heir to the English crown,^[81] on the throne. ^[82] Elizabeth was persuaded to send a force into Scotland to aid the Protestant rebels, and though the campaign was inept, the resulting Treaty of Edinburgh of July 1560 removed the French threat in the north. The Treaty of Edinburgh was a Treaty drawn up in 1560 by the Parliament of Scotland in an attempt to formally end the Auld Alliance with ^[83] When Mary returned to Scotland in 1561 to take up the reins of power, the country had an established Protestant church and was run by a council of Protestant nobles supported by Elizabeth. ^[84] Mary refused to ratify the treaty. ^[85]

Elizabeth offended Mary by proposing her own former suitor, Robert Dudley, as a husband. ^[85] Instead, in 1565 Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, who carried his own claim to the English throne. Henry Stuart 1st Duke of Albany ( 7 December 1545 – 10 February 1567) commonly known as Lord Darnley, was a King Consort The marriage, however, was the first of a series of errors of judgement by Mary that handed the victory to the Scottish Protestants and to Elizabeth. Darnley quickly became unpopular in Scotland and then infamous for presiding over the murder of Mary's Italian secretary David Rizzio. David Rizzio, sometimes written as David Riccio or David Rizzo (c In February 1567, Darnley was murdered by conspirators almost certainly led by James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell. James Hepburn 1st Duke of Orkney (c 1534 – 14 April 1578) better known by his inherited title as 4th Earl of Bothwell, was Hereditary Lord High Shortly afterwards, on 15 May 1567, Mary married Bothwell, arousing suspicions that she had been party to the murder of her husband. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Elizabeth wrote to her:

How could a worse choice be made for your honour than in such haste to marry such a subject, who besides other and notorious lacks, public fame has charged with the murder of your late husband, besides the touching of yourself also in some part, though we trust in that behalf falsely. ^[86]

These events led rapidly to Mary's defeat and imprisonment in Loch Leven Castle. Loch Leven Castle is a ruined Castle on an island in Loch Leven, in the Perth and Kinross region of Scotland. The Scottish lords forced her to abdicate in favour of her son James, who had been born in June 1566. James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James James was taken to Stirling Castle to be raised as a Protestant. For ships named after the castle see Stirling Castle (disambiguation Stirling Castle, located in Stirling, is one of the largest Mary escaped from Loch Leven in 1568 but after another defeat fled across the border into England, where she had once been assured of support from Elizabeth. Elizabeth's first instinct was to restore her fellow monarch; but she and her council instead chose to play safe. Rather than risk returning Mary to Scotland with an English army or sending her to France and the Catholic enemies of England, they detained her in England. She was imprisoned there for the next nineteen years. ^[87]

Signature of Elizabeth I of England

Mary was soon the focus for rebellion. In 1569, plotters in the Rising of the North talked of freeing her, and a scheme arose to marry her to Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk. The Rising of the North or Revolt of the Northern Earls was an unsuccessful uprising against Elizabeth I of England in 1569 by Catholics of Thomas Howard 4th Duke of Norfolk ( 10 March, 1536 &mdash 2 June 1572) was an English nobleman also the 1st Earl of Southampton Elizabeth reacted by sending Howard to the block. Mary may not have been told of every Catholic plot to put her on the English throne, but from the Ridolfi Plot of 1571 to the Babington Plot of 1586, Elizabeth's spymaster Sir Francis Walsingham and the royal council keenly assembled a case against her. The Ridolfi plot was a Roman Catholic plot in 1570 to assassinate Queen Elizabeth I of England and replace her with Mary I of Scotland. The Babington Plot was the event which most directly led to the execution of Mary I of Scotland (Mary Queen of Scots Sir Francis Walsingham (c 1532 – 6 April 1590) is usually remembered as the " Spymaster " of Queen Elizabeth I of England ^[88] At first, Elizabeth resisted calls for Mary's death. By late 1586, however, she had been persuaded to sanction her trial and execution on the evidence of letters written during the Babington Plot. ^[89] Elizabeth's proclamation of the sentence announced that ". . . the said Mary, pretending title to the same Crown, had compassed and imagined within the same realm divers things tending to the hurt, death and destruction of our royal person. . . ". ^[90] On 8 February 1587, Mary was beheaded at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire. Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Fotheringhay Castle was in the Village of Fotheringhay some 3½ miles (6 km to the north of the Market town of Oundle, Northamptonshire ^[91]

Spain

Main article: Spanish Armada

Main article: Anglo–Spanish War (1585)

After the disastrous occupation and loss of Le Havre in 1562–1563, Elizabeth avoided military expeditions on the continent until 1585. The Spanish Armada ( Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, "Great and Most Fortunate Navy" or Armada Invencible, "Invincible The Anglo–Spanish War (1585–1604 was an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England, which was never formally declared Le Havre is a city in the northwest region of France situated on the right bank of the mouth of the Seine River as it outlets into the Bay of the Seine In that year, she sent an English army to aid the Protestant Dutch rebels against Philip II. The Dutch Revolt, Eighty Years' War or the Revolt of the Netherlands (1568—1648 was the revolt of the Seventeen Provinces in the Low Countries This followed the deaths in 1584 of the allies William the Silent, Prince of Orange, and François, Duke of Anjou, and the surrender of a series of Dutch towns to Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma, Philip's governor of the Spanish Netherlands. William I Prince of Orange ( April 24 1533 — July 10 1584) also widely known as William the Silent (Willem de Zwijger or simply Hercule François Duke of Anjou and Alençon, often simply referred to as "the Duke of Alençon" ( March 18, 1555 &ndash June 19 Alexander Farnese ( Italian: Alessandro Farnese, Spanish: Alejandro Farnesio, ( August 27 1545 &ndash The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish In December 1584, an alliance between Philip II and the French Catholic League at Joinville undermined the ability of Anjou's brother, Henry III of France, to counter Spanish domination of the Netherlands. The Catholic League of France, sometimes referred to by contemporary (and modern Roman Catholics as the Holy League, was formed by Duke Henry of Guise in The Treaty of Joinville was signed in secret in December 1584 by the French Catholic League, led by France's first family of Catholic nobles the Guises Henry III of France (Henri III Henryk ( September 19 1551 – August 2, 1589) The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries It also extended Spanish influence along the channel coast of France, where the Catholic League was strong and exposed England to invasion. ^[76] The English and the Dutch reacted in August 1585 with the Treaty of Nonsuch, whereby Elizabeth, pressured by her advisors, promised military support to the Dutch. The Treaty of Nonsuch was signed by Elizabeth I of England and the Netherlands on August 20, 1585 at Nonsuch Palace in Surrey The treaty marked the beginning of the Anglo-Spanish War, which lasted until the Treaty of London in 1604. The Anglo–Spanish War (1585–1604 was an intermittent conflict between the kingdoms of Spain and England, which was never formally declared The Treaty of London, signed in 1604, concluded the twenty year Anglo-Spanish War.

Elizabeth did not trust this course of action from the start. The expedition, led by her old flame, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, achieved nothing. ^[92] Elizabeth's strategy, to use the English army as a defensive bargaining tool, was soon at odds with that of Dudley, who wanted to fight an active campaign but lacked the resources to do so. He enraged Elizabeth by accepting the post of Governor-General from the Dutch States-General. The States-General ( Staten-Generaal) is the Parliament of the Netherlands. Elizabeth saw this as a Dutch ploy to embroil her further in their defense. ^[93] She wrote to him:

We could never have imagined (had we not seen it fall out in experience) that a man raised up by ourself and extraordinarily favoured by us, above any other subject of this land, would have in so contemptible a sort broken our commandment in a cause that so greatly touches us in honour. . . . And therefore our express pleasure and commandment is that, all delays and excuses laid apart, you do presently upon the duty of your allegiance obey and fulfill whatsoever the bearer hereof shall direct you to do in our name. Whereof fail you not, as you will answer the contrary at your utmost peril. ^[94]

Elizabeth and her parliament's failure to send Dudley sufficient money and troops, combined with his own incompetence as a military leader, doomed the campaign to impotence. Dudley finally resigned his command in December 1587, his reputation in tatters. By that time, Philip II had decided to take the war to England. ^[95]

Portrait of Elizabeth to commemorate the defeat of the Spanish Armada (1588), depicted in the background. The Spanish Armada ( Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, "Great and Most Fortunate Navy" or Armada Invencible, "Invincible Elizabeth's hand rests on the globe, symbolising her international power.

On 12 July 1588, the Spanish Armada, a great fleet of ships, set sail for the channel, planning to ferry a Spanish invasion force under the Duke of Parma to the coast of southeast England from the Netherlands. Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre. The Spanish Armada ( Spanish: Grande y Felicísima Armada, "Great and Most Fortunate Navy" or Armada Invencible, "Invincible The armada, however, was defeated by a combination of miscalculation,^[96] misfortune, and an attack of English fire ships on 29 July off Gravelines which dispersed the Spanish ships to the northeast. A fire ship, used in the days of wooden rowed or Sailing ships was a ship filled with combustibles deliberately set on fire and steered (or where possible allowed to drift Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat Gravelines (Grevelingen is a small historic town and commune on the northern coast of France on the river Aa 15 miles (25 km south west of Dunkirk Habsburg Spain refers to the history of Spain over the 16th and 17th centuries (1516-1700 when this country was ruled by the Habsburg dynasty (also associated to ^[97] The armada straggled home to Spain in shattered remnants, after disastrous losses on the coast of Ireland (after some ships had tried to struggle back to Spain via the North Sea, and then back south past the west coast of Ireland). ^[98] Unaware of the armada's fate, English forces mustered to defend the country. Elizabeth inspected her troops at Tilbury in Essex on 8 August. Tilbury is a town in the borough of Thurrock, Essex, England. Essex is a county in the East of England. The County town is Chelmsford, and the highest point of the county is Chrishall Common Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Wearing a silver breastplate over a white velvet dress, she addressed them in one of her most famous speeches:^[99]

My loving people, we have been persuaded by some that are careful of our safety, to take heed how we commit ourself to armed multitudes for fear of treachery; but I assure you, I do not desire to live to distrust my faithful and loving people. The Speech to the Troops at Tilbury was delivered on 9 August Old Style, 19 August New Style 1588 by Queen Elizabeth I of . . . I know I have the body but of a weak and feeble woman, but I have the heart and stomach of a king, and of a King of England too, and think foul scorn that Parma or Spain, or any Prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realm. ^[100]

When no invasion came, the nation rejoiced. Elizabeth's procession to a thanksgiving service at St Paul's Cathedral rivalled that of her coronation as a spectacle. St Paul's Cathedral, is the Anglican Cathedral on Ludgate Hill, in the City of London, and the seat of the Bishop of London. ^[98] The defeat of the armada was a potent propaganda victory, both for Elizabeth and for Protestant England. The English took their delivery as a symbol of God's favour and of the nation's inviolability under a virgin queen. ^[77] However, the victory was not a turning point in the war, which continued and often favoured Spain. ^[101] The Spanish still controlled the Netherlands, and the threat of invasion remained. ^[95] Sir Walter Raleigh claimed after her death that Elizabeth's caution had impeded the war against Spain:

If the late queen would have believed her men of war as she did her scribes, we had in her time beaten that great empire in pieces and made their kings of figs and oranges as in old times. Sir Walter Raleigh or Ralegh (c 1552 – 29 October 1618 was a famed English writer Poet, Soldier, Courtier and Explorer But her Majesty did all by halves, and by petty invasions taught the Spaniard how to defend himself, and to see his own weakness. ^[102]

Though some historians have criticised Elizabeth on similar grounds,^[103] Raleigh's verdict has more often been judged unfair. Elizabeth had good reason not to place too much trust in her commanders, who once in action tended, as she put it herself, "to be transported with an haviour of vainglory". ^[104]

France

When the Protestant Henry IV inherited the French throne in 1589, Elizabeth sent him military support. Henry IV (Henri IV ( 13 December 1553 &ndash 14 May 1610) ruled as King of France from 1589 to 1610 and as Henry III It was her first venture into France since the retreat from Le Havre in 1563. Henry's succession was strongly contested by the Catholic League and by Philip II, and Elizabeth feared a Spanish takeover of the channel ports. The Catholic League of France, sometimes referred to by contemporary (and modern Roman Catholics as the Holy League, was formed by Duke Henry of Guise in The subsequent English campaigns in France, however, were disorganised and ineffective. ^[105] Lord Willoughby, largely ignoring Elizabeth's orders, roamed northern France to little effect, with an army of 4,000 men. Peregrine Bertie 13th Baron Willoughby de Eresby (1555 - 1601 was the son of Richard Bertie and Katherine Willoughby 12th Baroness Willoughby de Eresby. He withdrew in disarray in December 1589, having lost half his troops. In 1591, the campaign of John Norreys, who led 3,000 men to Brittany, was even more of a disaster. Sir John Norreys frequently referred to as John Norris (1547? &ndash July 3 1597) was an English soldier of a Berkshire family of court gentry son of Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into As for all such expeditions, Elizabeth was unwilling to invest in the supplies and reinforcements requested by the commanders. Norreys left for London to plead in person for more support. In his absence, a Catholic League army almost destroyed the remains of his army at Craon, north-west France, in May 1591. In July, Elizabeth sent out another force under Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, to help Henry IV in besieging Rouen. Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex ( 10 November 1566 &ndash 25 February 1601) a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I of England Rouen (ʁwɑ̃ in French) is the historical capital city of Normandy, in northwestern France on the River Seine, and currently the capital The result was just as dismal. Essex accomplished nothing and returned home in January 1592. Henry abandoned the siege in April. ^[106] As usual, Elizabeth lacked control over her commanders once they were abroad. "Where he is, or what he doth, or what he is to do," she wrote of Essex, "we are ignorant". ^[107]

Ireland

Although Ireland was one of her two kingdoms, Elizabeth faced a hostile—and in places virtually autonomous^[108]—Catholic population that was willing to plot with her enemies. Her policy there was to grant land to her courtiers and prevent the rebels from giving Spain a base from which to attack England. ^[75] In response to a series of uprisings, the English forces pursued scorched-earth tactics, burning the land and slaughtering man, woman and child. A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between During a revolt in Munster led by Gerald FitzGerald, Earl of Desmond, in 1582, an estimated 30,000 Irish people starved to death. Munster ( Irish: An Mhumhain, ənˈvuːnʲ Cúige Mumhan or Mumha) is the southernmost of the four Provinces of Ireland. Gerald FitzGerald 15th Earl of Desmond (c 1533 &ndash 11 November 1583) was an Irish nobleman and leader of the Desmond Rebellions of 1579 The poet Edmund Spenser wrote that the victims "were brought to such wretchedness as that any stony heart would have rued the same". Edmund Spenser (c 1552 &ndash 13 January, 1599) was an important English Poet and Poet Laureate best known for The ^[109] Elizabeth advised her commanders that the Irish, "that rude and barbarous nation", be well treated; but she showed no remorse when force and bloodshed were deemed necessary. ^[110]

Between 1594 and 1603, Elizabeth faced her most severe test in Ireland, with the revolt known as Tyrone's Rebellion, or the Nine Years War. The Nine Years War (Cogadh na Naoi mBliana in Ireland took place from 1594 to 1603 and is also known as Tyrone's Rebellion. Its leader, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, was backed by Spain. Aodh Mór Ó Néill (anglicised as Hugh The Great O'Neill) (c ^[111] In spring 1599, Elizabeth sent Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, to put the revolt down. Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex ( 10 November 1566 &ndash 25 February 1601) a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I of England To her frustration,^[112] he made little progress and returned to England without permission. He was replaced by Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy, who took three years to defeat the rebels. Charles Blount (pr blunt) 1st Earl of Devonshire and 8th Baron Mountjoy (1563 &ndash 3 April 1606) served as Lord Deputy O'Neill finally surrendered in 1603, a few days after Elizabeth's death. ^[113]

Later years and death

As Elizabeth aged and marriage became unlikely, her image gradually changed. She was portrayed as Belphoebe or Astraea, and after the Armada, as Gloriana, the eternally youthful Faerie Queene of Edmund Spenser's poem. Belphoebe (i e Beautiful Diana) or Belphebe is a huntress in The Faerie Queene, the impersonation of Queen Elizabeth, conceived In Greek mythology, Astraea ( English translation: "star-maiden" was a daughter of Zeus and Themis or of Eos and Gloriana is an Opera in three acts by Benjamin Britten to an English Libretto by William Plomer, based on Elizabeth and The Faerie Queene is an English epic poem by Edmund Spenser, published first in three books in 1590 and later in six books in 1596 Edmund Spenser (c 1552 &ndash 13 January, 1599) was an important English Poet and Poet Laureate best known for The Her painted portraits became less realistic and more a set of enigmatic icons that made her look much younger than she was. Iconography is the branch of Art history which studies the identification description and the interpretation of the content of images In fact, her skin had been scarred by smallpox in 1562, leaving her half bald and dependent on wigs and cosmetics. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. ^[114][115] Sir Walter Raleigh called her "a lady whom time had surprised". ^[116] However, the more Elizabeth's beauty faded, the more her courtiers praised it. ^[114]

Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, by William Segar, 1590

Elizabeth was happy to play the part,^[117] but it is possible that in the last decade of her life she began to believe her own performance. Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex ( 10 November 1566 &ndash 25 February 1601) a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I of England Sir William Segar (in or before 1564&ndash1633 was a Portrait painter and Officer of arms to the court of Elizabeth I of England who became She became fond and indulgent of the charming but petulant young Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex, who took liberties with her for which she forgave him. ^[118] She repeatedly appointed him to military posts despite his growing record of irresponsibility. After Essex's desertion of his command in Ireland in 1599 (returning to England from Ireland against Elizabeth's express command), Elizabeth had him placed under house arrest and the following year deprived him of his monopolies. In Economics, a monopoly (from Greek monos, alone or single + polein, to sell exists when a specific individual or enterprise has sufficient ^[119] In February 1601, the earl tried to raise a rebellion in London. He intended to seize the queen but few rallied to his support, and he was beheaded on 25 February. Events 138 - The Emperor Hadrian adopts Antoninus Pius, effectively making him his successor Elizabeth knew that her own misjudgements were partly to blame for this turn of events. An observer reported in 1602 that "Her delight is to sit in the dark, and sometimes with shedding tears to bewail Essex". ^[120]

The monopolies Elizabeth reclaimed from Essex were her typical reward to a courtier during the last years of her reign. She had come to rely on this cost-free system of patronage rather than ask Parliament for more subsidies in a time of war. ^[121] The practice soon led to price-fixing, the enrichment of courtiers at the public's expense, and widespread resentment. ^[122] This culminated in agitation in the House of Commons during the parliament of 1601. ^[123] In her famous "Golden Speech" of 30 November 1601, Elizabeth professed ignorance of the abuses and won the members over with promises and her usual appeal to the emotions:^[124]

Who keeps their sovereign from the lapse of error, in which, by ignorance and not by intent they might have fallen, what thank they deserve, we know, though you may guess. The Golden Speech The rhetorical piece The Golden Speech, was delivered by Queen Elizabeth I of England to 141 Members of the Commons (including the Speaker Events 1700 - Battle of Narva — A Swedish army of 8500 men under Charles XII defeats And as nothing is more dear to us than the loving conservation of our subjects' hearts, what an undeserved doubt might we have incurred if the abusers of our liberality, the thrallers of our people, the wringers of the poor, had not been told us!^[125]

The period after the defeat of the Armada in 1588 brought new difficulties for Elizabeth that lasted the fifteen years until the end of her reign. ^[101] The conflicts with Spain and in Ireland dragged on, the tax burden grew heavier, and the economy was hit by poor harvests and the cost of war. Prices rose and the standard of living fell. ^[126][127] During this time, repression of Catholics intensified, and Elizabeth authorised commissions in 1591 to interrogate and monitor Catholic householders. ^[128] To maintain the illusion of peace and prosperity, she increasingly relied on internal spies and propaganda. ^[126] In her last years, mounting criticism reflected a decline in the public's affection for her. ^[129]

This same period of economic and political uncertainty, however, produced an unsurpassed literary flowering in England. ^[130] The first signs of a new literary movement had appeared at the end of the second decade of Elizabeth's reign, with John Lyly's Euphues and Edmund Spenser's The Shepheardes Calender in 1578. John Lyly ( Lilly or Lylie) (c 1553 or 1554 &ndash November 1606 was an English writer best known for his books Euphues The Anatomy of Wit Edmund Spenser (c 1552 &ndash 13 January, 1599) was an important English Poet and Poet Laureate best known for The The Shepheardes Calender was Edmund Spenser 's first major poetic work published in 1579 During the 1590s, some of the great names of English literature entered their maturity, including William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe. William Shakespeare ( baptised During this period and into the Jacobean era that followed, the English theatre reached its highest peaks. Highlights of the Jacobean Era The practical if not formal unification of England and Scotland under one ruler was a development of the first order of importance for both English Renaissance theatre is English drama written between the Reformation and the closure of the theatres in 1642. ^[131] The notion of a great Elizabethan age depends largely on the builders, dramatists, poets, and musicians who were active during Elizabeth's reign. Romance and reality The Victorian era and the early twentieth century idealised the Elizabethan era They owed little directly to the queen, who was never a major patron of the arts. ^[132]

Portrait of King James by John de Critz, circa 1606

Elizabeth's most trusted advisor, Burghley, died on 4 August 1598. James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James John de Critz or John Decritz (1551/2 Antwerp – buried 14 March 1642, London) was one of a number of painters of Flemish and Lord Burghley redirects here For other holders of the title see Baron Burghley William Cecil 1st Baron Burghley (13 September 1520 &ndash Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. His political mantle passed to his son, Robert Cecil, who soon became the leader of the government. Robert Cecil 1st Earl of Salisbury, KG, PC ( 1 June 1563 &ndash 24 May 1612) son of William Cecil 1st Baron Burghley ^[133] One task he addressed was to prepare the way for a smooth succession. Since Elizabeth would never name her successor, Cecil was obliged to proceed in secret. ^[134] He therefore entered into a coded negotiation with James VI of Scotland, who had a strong but unrecognised claim. James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James Cecil coached the impatient James to humour Elizabeth and "secure the heart of the highest, to whose sex and quality nothing is so improper as either needless expostulations or over much curiosity in her own actions". ^[135] The advice worked. James's tone delighted Elizabeth, who responded: "So trust I that you will not doubt but that your last letters are so acceptably taken as my thanks cannot be lacking for the same, but yield them to you in grateful sort". ^[136] In historian J. E. Neale's view, Elizabeth may not have declared her wishes openly to James, but she made them known with "unmistakable if veiled phrases". ^[137]

The Queen's health remained fair until the autumn of 1602, when a series of deaths among her friends plunged her into a severe depression. In February 1603, the death of her cousin and close friend, Catherine Carey, Countess of Nottingham, came as a particular blow. In March, Elizabeth fell sick and remained in a "settled and unremovable melancholy". ^[138] She died on 24 March 1603 at Richmond Palace, between two and three in the morning. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Richmond Palace was a royal residence from 1327 to 1649 on The Green Richmond, United Kingdom. A few hours later, Cecil and the council set their plans in motion and proclaimed James VI of Scotland as James I of England. James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James ^[139]

Elizabeth's funeral cortège, 1603, sometimes attributed to William Camden

Elizabeth's coffin was carried downriver at night to Whitehall, on a barge lit with torches. William Camden ( 2 May 1551 &ndash 9 November 1623) was an English Antiquarian and historian The Palace of Whitehall was the main residence of the English monarchs in London from 1530 until 1698 when all except Inigo Jones 's 1622 At her funeral on 28 April, the coffin was taken to Westminster Abbey on a hearse drawn by four horses hung with black velvet. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, which is almost always referred to by its original name of Westminster Abbey, is a large mainly Gothic church For the extreme metal band see Hearse (band A hearse is a Funeral Vehicle, a conveyance for the Coffin In the words of the chronicler John Stow:

Westminster was surcharged with multitudes of all sorts of people in their streets, houses, windows, leads and gutters, that came out to see the obsequy, and when they beheld her statue lying upon the coffin, there was such a general sighing, groaning and weeping as the like hath not been seen or known in the memory of man. John Stow (c 1525&ndash 6 April 1605) was an English Historian and Antiquarian. ^[140]

Legacy

Elizabeth was lamented, but the people were relieved at her death. ^[141] A new age was born, and at first the signs were good, with the ending of the war against Spain in 1604 and lower taxes. Until the death of Robert Cecil in 1612, the government ran along much the same lines as before. ^[142] James I's rule, however, became unpopular when he turned state affairs over to court favourites, and in the 1620s there was a nostalgic revival of the cult of Elizabeth. ^[143] Elizabeth was praised as a heroine of the Protestant cause and the ruler of a golden age. James was depicted as a Catholic sympathiser, presiding over a corrupt court. ^[144] The triumphalist image that Elizabeth had cultivated towards the end of her reign, against a background of factionalism and military and economic difficulties,^[145] was taken at face value and her reputation inflated. Godfrey Goodman, Bishop of Gloucester, recalled: "When we had experience of a Scottish government, the Queen did seem to revive. Godfrey Goodman ( 28 February, 1582 or 1583 Ruthin, Denbighshire - 19 January 1656, Westminster) was the Then was her memory much magnified. "^[146] Elizabeth's reign became idealised as a time when crown, church and parliament had worked in constitutional balance. ^[147]

Elizabeth I, painted by an unknown artist after 1620, during the first revival of interest in her reign. Time sleeps on her right and Death looks over her left shoulder; two putti hold the crown above her head. The putto (pl putti) is a figure of a pudgy Human baby, almost always male often naked and having wings found especially in Italian Renaissance ^[148]

The picture of Elizabeth painted by her Protestant admirers of the early 17th century has proved lasting and influential. ^[149] Her memory was also revived during the Napoleonic Wars, when the nation again found itself on the brink of invasion. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions ^[150] In the Victorian era, the Elizabethan legend was adapted to the imperial ideology of the day. Culture The Victorian fascination with novelty resulted in a deep interest in the relationship between modernity and cultural continuities ^[141][151] In the mid-20th century, Elizabeth was a romantic symbol of the national resistance to foreign threat. ^[152][153] Historians of that period, such as J. E. Neale (1934) and A. L. Rowse (1950), interpreted Elizabeth's reign as a golden age of progress. Alfred Leslie Rowse, CH FBA ( December 4, 1903 &ndash October 3, 1997) known professionally as A ^[154]

Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabeth. ^[155] Her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, and for successful raids against the Spanish, such as those on Cádiz in 1587 and 1596, but some historians point to military failures on land and at sea, such as the "Islands voyage" to the Azores, of 1597 (where Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex defied the Queen's orders, and pursued the Spanish treasure fleet before ensuring that the Spanish navy was out of action). Robert Devereux 2nd Earl of Essex ( 10 November 1566 &ndash 25 February 1601) a favourite of Queen Elizabeth I of England ^[105] Elizabeth's problems in Ireland also stain her record. ^[156] Rather than as a brave defender of the Protestant nations against Spain and the Habsburgs, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered minimum aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad. ^[157]

Elizabeth established an English church that helped shape a national identity and remains in place today. ^{[158][159][160]} Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her refusal to drop all Catholic practices. ^[161][162] Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement was Elizabeth I ’s response to the religious divisions created over the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary ^{[163][164][165]} In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as Francis Bacon put it, to "make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts". Francis Bacon 1st Viscount St Alban KC QC (22 January 1561 – 9 April 1626 was an English Philosopher, Statesman, and author ^[166][167]

Despite Elizabeth's largely defensive foreign policy, her reign raised England's status abroad. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled Pope Sixtus V, "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all". Pope Sixtus V ( December 13, 1521 &ndash August 27, 1590) born Felice Peretti di Montalto, was Pope from 1585 to 1590 ^[168] Under Elizabeth, the nation gained a new self-confidence and sense of sovereignty, as Christendom fragmented. Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon ^{[143][169][170]} Elizabeth was the first Tudor to recognise that a monarch ruled by popular consent. ^[171] She therefore always worked with parliament and advisers she could trust to tell her the truth—a style of government that her Stuart successors failed to follow. Some historians have called her lucky;^[168] she believed that God was protecting her. ^[172] Priding herself on being "mere English",^[173] Elizabeth trusted in God, honest advice, and the love of her subjects for the success of her rule. ^[174] In a prayer, she offered thanks to God that:

[At a time] when wars and seditions with grievous persecutions have vexed almost all kings and countries round about me, my reign hath been peacable, and my realm a receptacle to thy afflicted Church. The love of my people hath appeared firm, and the devices of my enemies frustrate. ^[168]

Ancestors

See also

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Background
Scripture Christianity Catholicism Apostolic Succession English Reformation
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• Cultural depictions of Elizabeth I of England
• English Renaissance
• Protestant Reformation
• Tudor re-conquest of Ireland
• Early modern Europe

Notes

Bibliography

• Black, J. B. The Reign of Elizabeth: 1558–1603. Oxford: Clarendon, (1936) 1945. OCLC 5077207
• Brimacombe, Peter. All the Queen's Men: The World of Elizabeth I. New York: St Martin's Press, 2000. ISBN 0312232519.
• Camden, William. History of the Most Renowned and Victorious Princess Elizabeth. William Camden ( 2 May 1551 &ndash 9 November 1623) was an English Antiquarian and historian Wallace T. MacCaffrey (ed). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, selected chapters, 1970 edition. OCLC 59210072.
• Clapham, John. Elizabeth of England. E. P. Read and Conyers Read (eds). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1951. OCLC 1350639.
• Collinson, Patrick. "The Mongrel Religion of Elizabethan England. " Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed. ). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765.
• Croft, Pauline. King James. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003. ISBN 0333613953.
• Davenport, Cyril. English Embroidered Bookbindings. Alfred Pollard (ed. ). London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co. , 1899. OCLC 705685.
• Dobson, Michael; and Nicola Watson. "Elizabeth's Legacy". Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed. ). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765.
• Doran, Susan. "The Queen's Suitors and the Problem of the Succession. " Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed. ). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765.
• Edwards, Philip. The Making of the Modern English State: 1460–1660. Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004. ISBN 031223614X.
• Elizabeth I: The Collected Works Leah S. Marcus, Mary Beth Rose & Janel Mueller (eds. ). Chicago: Chicago University Press, 2002. ISBN 0226504654.
• Elton, G.R. England under the Tudors. Sir Geoffrey Rudolph Elton ( 17 August 1921 &ndash 3 December 1994) was a British Historian of the Tudor period. London: Routledge, 1991. ISBN 041506533X.
• Flynn, Sian; and David Spence. "Elizabeth's Adventurers". Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed. ). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765.
• Frieda, Leonie. Catherine de Medici. Leonie Frieda (born 1956 is a Swedish -born former model translator and writer working and living in the United Kingdom London: Phoenix, 2005. ISBN 0173820390.
• Gaunt, William. Court Painting in England from Tudor to Victorian Times. London: Constable, 1980. ISBN 0094618704.
• Graves, Michael A. R. Elizabethan Parliaments: 1559–1601. London and New York: Longman, 1987. ISBN 0582355168.
• Guy, John. John Guy (born 1949 in Warragul, Australia) is a leading British Historian and biographer. My Heart is My Own: The Life of Mary Queen of Scots. London and New York: Fourth Estate, 2004. ISBN 184115752X.
• Haigh, Christopher. Elizabeth I. Harlow (UK): Longman Pearson, (1988) 1998 edition. ISBN 0582437547.
• Hasler. P. W (ed). History of Parliament. House of Commons 1558–1603 (3 vols). London: Published for the History of Parliament Trust by H.M.S.O., 1981. The Office of Public Sector Information ( OPSI) is the body responsible for the operation of Her Majesty's Stationery Office (usually abbreviated as HMSO ISBN 0118875019.
• Hogge, Alice. God's Secret Agents: Queen Elizabeth's Forbidden Priests and the Hatching of the Gunpowder Plot. London: HarperCollins, 2005. ISBN 0007156375.
• Loades, David. Elizabeth I: The Golden Reign of Gloriana. London: The National Archives, 2003. The National Archives (TNA is a British Governmental organisation created in April 2003 to maintain a National archive for " England, Wales ISBN 1903365430.
• Neale, J. E. Queen Elizabeth I: A Biography. London: Jonathan Cape, (1934) 1954 reprint. OCLC 220518.
• Ridley, Jasper. Jasper Godwin Ridley (1920 – 2004 was a British writer known for historical biographies Elizabeth I: The Shrewdness of Virtue. New York : Fromm International, 1989. ISBN 088064110X.
• Rowse, A. L. The England of Elizabeth. Alfred Leslie Rowse, CH FBA ( December 4, 1903 &ndash October 3, 1997) known professionally as A London: Macmillan, 1950. OCLC 181656553.
• Russell, Conrad. The Crisis of Parliaments: English History, 1509–1660. Conrad Sebastian Robert Russell 5th Earl Russell ( 15 April 1937 &ndash 14 October 2004) was a British historian Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1971. ISBN 0199130345.
• Somerset, Anne. Elizabeth I. London: Phoenix, (1991) 1997 edition. ISBN 0385721579.
• Starkey, David. "Elizabeth: Woman, Monarch, Mission. Not to be confused with David Starkey (maritime historian. David Robert Starkey CBE (born 3 January 1945) " Elizabeth: The Exhibition at the National Maritime Museum. Susan Doran (ed. ). London: Chatto and Windus, 2003. ISBN 0701174765.
• Strong, Roy. Gloriana: The Portraits of Queen Elizabeth I. Sir Roy Colin Strong (born 23 August 1935) is an English Art historian, museum curator writer broadcaster and landscape designer London: Pimlico, (1987) 2003. ISBN 071260944X.
• Waller, Maureen, "Sovereign Ladies: Sex, Sacrifice, and Power. The Six Reigning Queens of England. " St. Martin's Press, New York, 2006. ISBN 0-312-33801-5
• Weir, Alison. Elizabeth the Queen. Alison Weir (born 1951) is a British Writer of History books mostly in the form of biographies about British royalty London: Pimlico, (1998) 1999 edition. ISBN 0712673121.
• Williams, Neville. The Life and Times of Elizabeth I. London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1972. ISBN 0297831682.
• Willson, David Harris. King James VI & I. London: Jonathan Cape, (1956) 1963. ISBN 0224605720.
• Wilson, Charles H. Queen Elizabeth and the Revolt of the Netherlands. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1970. ISBN 0520017447.

External links

• William Camden. Annales Rerum Gestarum Angliae et Hiberniae Regnante Elizabetha. (1615 and 1625. William Camden ( 2 May 1551 &ndash 9 November 1623) was an English Antiquarian and historian ) Hypertext edition, with English translation. Dana F. Sutton (ed. ), 2000. Retrieved 7 December 2007.
• Tudor and Elizabeth Portraits. Tudor and Elizabethan portraits and other works of art, provided for research and education. Retrieved 15 December 2007.