Diocletian
Emperor of the Roman Empire
Diocletian
Reign	November 20, 284 – April 1, 286 (alone) April 1, 286 – May 1, 305 (as Augustus of the East, with Maximian as Augustus of the West)[1]
Full name	Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus[2]
Born	ca. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Events By Place Roman Empire November 20 — Diocletian becomes Emperor. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c December 22, 244[3]
Birthplace	Dioclea, near Salonae[4]
Died	December 3, 311[5]
Place of death	Spalatum (now Split, Croatia)
Predecessor	Numerian
Successor	Constantius Chlorus and Galerius
Consort to	Prisca
Issue	Valeria

Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus (ca. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies Events By Place Roman Empire February 11 — Emperor Gordian III is killed by his Praetorian Prefect Philip the Ancient balkans 4thcenturypng|thumb|200px|City of Doclea in the 4th century]] Duklja or Doclea (also Dioclea or Diocleia, Serbian Cyrillic: Дукља Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Events By Place Roman Empire May 5 — Galerius issues his Edict of Toleration ending Persecution of Christians Diocletian's Palace ( Dioklecijanova palača in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built by the emperor Diocletian Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus (d November 284 known in English as Numerian, was a Roman Emperor (December 283 &ndash November 284 Numerian was the Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Prisca (died in 315 was the Empress of Rome and wife of Emperor Diocletian. December 22, 244^[3] – December 3, 311^[5]), born Diocles (Greek: Διοκλής) and known as Diocletian (IPA: /ˌdаɪəˈkliːʃən/), was Roman Emperor from November 20, 284 to May 1, 305. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies Events By Place Roman Empire February 11 — Emperor Gordian III is killed by his Praetorian Prefect Philip the Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Events By Place Roman Empire May 5 — Galerius issues his Edict of Toleration ending Persecution of Christians Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Events By Place Roman Empire November 20 — Diocletian becomes Emperor. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office Born to a Dalmatian family of low status, he rose through the ranks of the military to become cavalry commander to the emperor Carus. Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern Marcus Aurelius Carus (c 230 - late July/early August 283 was a Roman Emperor (282-283 After the deaths of Carus and his son Numerian on campaign in Persia, Diocletian was acclaimed emperor by the army. Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus (d November 284 known in English as Numerian, was a Roman Emperor (December 283 &ndash November 284 Numerian was the A brief confrontation with Carus' other surviving son Carinus at the Battle of the Margus removed the only other claimant to the title. Marcus Aurelius Carinus (died 285 was Roman Emperor (283 &ndash July 285 and elder son of the Emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor The Battle of the Margus was fought in May 285 between the armies of Roman Emperors Diocletian and Carinus in the valley of the Margus River (today Diocletian appointed fellow-officer Maximian his Augustus, his senior co-emperor, in 285. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman He delegated further on March 1, 293, appointing Galerius and Constantius as Caesars, junior co-emperors. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Under this "Tetrarchy", or "rule of four", each emperor would rule over a quarter-division of the empire. Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals In campaigns against Sarmatian and Danubian tribes (285–90), the Alamanni (288), and usurpers in Egypt (297–98), Diocletian secured the empire's borders and purged it of threats to his power. The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire In 299, Diocletian led negotiations with Sassanid Persia, the empire's traditional enemy, and achieved a lasting and favorable peace. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire

Diocletian separated and enlarged the empire's civil and military services and re-organized the empire's provincial divisions, establishing the largest and most bureaucratic government in the history of the Empire. Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government New power centers were established in Nicomedia, Mediolanum, Antioch, and Trier. Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens Mediolanum, the ancient Milan, was an important Celtic and then Roman centre Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. These cities were far removed from the traditional capitol at Rome, but were close to the military concerns of the empire. Developing on third-century trends towards absolutism, Diocletian styled himself an autocrat, and divided himself from the empire's masses via imposing forms of court ceremonial and architecture. Bureaucratic and military growth, constant campaigning, and construction projects increased the state's expenditures, and necessitated a comprehensive tax reform. From at least 297 on, imperial taxation was standardized, made more equitable, and levied at generally higher rates.

Not all Diocletian's plans were successful; the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), Diocletian's attempt to curb inflation via price controls, was unsuccessful, counterproductive, and quickly ignored. The Edict on Maximum Prices (also known as the Edict on Prices or the Edict of Diocletian; in Latin Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium In economics inflation or price inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over a period of time Although effective while he ruled, Diocletian's Tetrarchic system collapsed after his abdication under the competing dynastic claims of Maxentius and Constantine, sons of Maximian and Constantius respectively. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c 278 - 28 October 312) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312 Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine The Diocletianic Persecution, the empire's last systematic persecution of Christianity, failed to significantly weaken the Church, and by 324, the empire would be ruled by the Christian emperor Constantine. The Diocletianic Persecution was the last and most severe episode of Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings In spite of his failures, Diocletian's reforms fundamentally changed the structure of Roman imperial government and helped stabilize the empire economically and militarily, enabling an empire that had seemed near the brink of collapse in Diocletian's youth to remain essentially intact for another hundred years. Weakened by illness, Diocletian left the imperial office on May 1, 305, and became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate the position. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office He lived out his retirement in a palace on the Dalmatian coast, tending his vegetable gardens. Diocletian's Palace ( Dioklecijanova palača in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built by the emperor Diocletian

Early life

Diocletian was probably born near Salona in Dalmatia (Solin in modern Croatia), some time around 244. Salona was an ancient Illyrian Delmati city in the first millennium BC. Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between ^[3] His parents named him Diocles, or possibly Diocles Valerius. ^[6] The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate, but other historians are not so certain. Timothy David Barnes (1942&ndash is a British classicist. Timothy David Barnes was born in Yorkshire in 1942 Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies ^[7] Diocles' parents were of low status, and writers critical of him claimed that his father was a scribe or a freedman of the senator Anullinus, or even that Diocles was a freedman himself. A scribe (or scrivener) is a person who writes books or documents by hand as a profession A freedman is a former slave who has been manumitted or emancipated. The first forty years of his life are mostly obscure. ^[8] The Byzantine chronicler Joannes Zonaras states that he was Dux Moesiae,^[9] a commander of forces on the lower Danube. Joannes (John Zonaras ( Greek:; ''fl'' 12th century was a Byzantine chronicler and theologian, who lived at Constantinople. Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj ^[10] The unreliable Historia Augusta states that he served in Gaul, where he received an omen of his future rule, but this statement is not corroborated by other sources. The Augustan History ( Lat Historia Augusta) is a late Roman collection of biographies in Latin of the Roman Emperors their junior ^[11] In 282, the legions of the upper Danube in Raetia and Noricum proclaimed the praetorian prefect M. Raetia (so always in inscriptions classical manuscripts usually use the form Rhaetia) was a province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the west by the country Noricum, in ancient Geography, was a Celtic kingdom (perhaps better described as a federation of by tradition twelve tribes stretching over the area of Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature Aurelius Carus as emperor, beginning a rebellion against what had been the apparently secure government of the emperor Probus. Marcus Aurelius Carus (c 230 - late July/early August 283 was a Roman Emperor (282-283 Marcus Aurelius Probus (c August 19, 232 &ndashSeptember/October 282 was a Roman Emperor (276&ndash282 ^[12] Probus' army, stationed in Sirmium (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia), decided against fighting Carus, and assassinated Probus instead. Sirmium in Pannonia should not be confused with Sirmio on Lake Garda Sirmium (today Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) was an ancient Sremska Mitrovica ( Serbian Cyrillic: Сремска Митровица is a city and municipality located Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country ^[13] Diocles soon gained Carus' trust, for Carus declared him commander of the Protectores Domestici, the cavalry arm of the imperial bodyguard. ^[14]

Carus, already sixty, wished to establish a dynasty;^[15] he immediately elevated his sons Carinus and Numerian to the rank of Caesar. Marcus Aurelius Carinus (died 285 was Roman Emperor (283 &ndash July 285 and elder son of the Emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor Marcus Aurelius Numerius Numerianus (d November 284 known in English as Numerian, was a Roman Emperor (December 283 &ndash November 284 Numerian was the ^[16] In 283, Carus raised Carinus to the title Augustus,^[17] left him in charge of the care of the West, and moved with Numerian, Diocles, and the praetorian prefect Aper to the East, against the Sassanid Empire. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Sassanids had been embroiled in a succession dispute since the death of Shapur, and were in no position to oppose Carus' advance. ^[18] According to Zonaras, Eutropius, and Festus, Carus won a major victory against the Persians, taking Seleucia and the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon (near modern Al-Mada'in, Iraq), cities on opposite banks of the Tigris. For the Byzantine officer see also Eutropius (Byzantine official (396-397 Festus was a late Roman historian (and Proconsul of Africa) whose breviary (summary of the history of Rome one source was the Enmannsche Kaisergeschichte For the Syrian seaport of the same name that figures in the travels of Saint Paul see Seleucia Pieria. For the Spanish saint see Ctesiphon of Vergium. Ctesiphon (قطسيفون تیسفون was one of the great cities of the Persian Empire Al-Mada'in ( Arabic المدائن "The cities" also known under the Aramaic name "Mahoze" or as "Madayn" is the name of For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. The Tigris is the eastern member of the two great Rivers that define Mesopotamia, along with the Euphrates, which flows from the mountains of southeastern ^[19] In celebration, Carus and his sons took the title Persici maximi. A victory title is an honorific title adopted by a successful military commander to commemorate his defeat of an enemy nation ^[20] Carus died in July or early August,^[21] reportedly struck by lightning. ^[22]

Rise to power

Death of Numerian

Map of the Roman Empire ca. 400

Carus' death left his unpopular sons Numerian and Carinus as the new Augusti. Carinus quickly made his way to Rome from Gaul, and arrived by January 284; Numerian lingered in the East. ^[23] The Roman retreat from Persia was orderly and unopposed, for the Persian King, Bahram II, was still struggling to establish his authority. Bahram II was the fifth Sassanid King of Persia in 276&ndash293 ^[24] By March 284 Numerian had only reached Emesa (Homs) in Syria; by November, only Asia Minor. For military actions near the city see Battle of Homs. Homs ( حمص,, anciently called Emesa (ἡ Ἔμεσα or "La Chamelle" Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية ^[25] In Emesa he was apparently still alive and in good health, as he issued the only extant rescript in his name there. A rescript is a document that is issued not on the initiative of the author but in response (it literally means 'written back' to a specific demand made by its addressee ^[26] After Emesa, Numerian's staff, including the prefect Aper, reported that Numerian suffered from an inflammation of the eyes, and had to travel in a closed coach. ^[27] When the army reached Bithynia,^[23] some of Numerian's soldiers smelled an odor reminiscent of a decaying corpse emanating from the coach. Description Several major cities sat on the fertile shores of the Propontis (which is now known as Sea of Marmara) Nicomedia, Chalcedon, Cius ^[24] They opened its curtains. Inside, they found Numerian, dead. ^[28]

Aper officially broke the news in Nicomedia (İzmit) in November. Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens İzmit (ancient Nicomedia) is a city in Turkey, administrative center of Kocaeli Province as well as the Kocaeli Metropolitan Municipality ^[29] Numerianus' generals and tribunes called a council for the succession, and chose Diocles as emperor,^[30] in spite of Aper's attempts to garner support. ^[29] On November 20, 284, the army of the east gathered on a hill three miles 5 km (3. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Events By Place Roman Empire November 20 — Diocletian becomes Emperor. The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand 1 mi) outside Nicomedia. A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States The army unanimously saluted their new Augustus, and Diocles accepted the purple imperial vestments. He raised his sword to the light of the sun, and swore an oath declaiming responsibility for Numerian's death. He asserted that Aper had killed Numerian and concealed it. ^[31] In full view of the army, Diocles drew his blade and killed Aper. ^[32] Soon after Aper's death, Diocles changed his name to the more Latinate "Diocletianus",^[33] fully Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus. ^[34]

Conflict with Carinus

Head of Carinus at the Centrale Montemartini

After his accession, Diocletian and Lucius Caesonius Bassus^[35] were named as consuls. Marcus Aurelius Carinus (died 285 was Roman Emperor (283 &ndash July 285 and elder son of the Emperor Carus, on whose accession he was appointed governor The Capitoline Museums ( Italian Musei Capitolini) are a group of art and archeological Museums in Piazza del Campidoglio ^[36] They assumed the fasces in place of Carinus and Numerianus. Fasces (ˈfæsiːz a Plurale tantum, from the Latin word fascis, meaning "bundle" symbolize summary power and Jurisdiction Bassus was a member of a Campanian senatorial family, a former consul and a proconsul of Africa. Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. He had been chosen by Probus for signal distinction. ^[37] He was a man skilled in areas of government where Diocletian, presumably, had no experience. ^[29] Diocletian's elevation of Bassus as consul symbolized his rejection of Carinus' government in Rome, his refusal to accept second-tier status to any other emperor,^[37] and his willingness to continue the long-standing collaboration between the empire's senatorial and military aristocracies. ^[29] It also tied his success to that of the Senate, whose support he would need in an advance on Rome. ^[37]

Diocletian was not the only challenger to Carinus' rule; the usurper M. Aurelius Julianus, Carinus' corrector Venetiae, controlled northern Italy and Pannonia. Marcus Aurelius Sabinus Iulianus (also known as Julian I or Julian of Pannonia; d Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, ^[38] Julianus took power following Diocletian's accession. He minted coins from the mint at Siscia (Sisak, Croatia) declaring himself as emperor and promising freedom. Sisak ( German: Sissek, Hungarian: Sziszek, Italian: Siscia) is a City in It was all good press for Diocletian, and aided in his portrayal of Carinus as a cruel and oppressive tyrant. ^[39] Julianus' forces were weak, however, and were handily dispersed when Carinus' armies moved from Britain to northern Italy. With the East under control, Diocletian was clearly a greater threat. ^[40] Over the winter of 284–5, Diocletian advanced west across the Balkans. In the spring, some time before the end of May,^[41] his armies met Carinus' across the river Margus (Great Morava) in Moesia. The Velika Morava or Great Morava ( Serbian Cyrillic: Велика Морава) is a final section of the Morava (Cyrillic Морава Moesia (Μοισία Moisía; Мизия Miziya; Moesia Мезија Mezija) was an ancient region and Roman province situated in the In modern accounts, the site has been located between the Mons Aureus (Seone, west of Smederevo) and Viminacium,^[37] near modern Belgrade, Serbia. Smederevo (Смедерево is a city and municipality in Serbia on the Danube at 44 Viminacium was a major city of the Roman province of Moesia (today's Serbia) and the capital of Moesia Superior. Belgrade (Београд Beograd is the Capital and largest city of Serbia. ^[42]

Despite having the stronger army, Carinus held the weaker position. His rule was unpopular; it was subsequently alleged that Carinus had mistreated the Senate and seduced the wives of his officers. ^[43] It is possible that Flavius Constantius, the governor of Dalmatia and Diocletian's associate in the household guard, had already defected to Diocletian in the early spring. Flavius Valerius Constantius ( March 31 c 250&ndash July 25 306) was an emperor of the Western Roman Empire (305&ndash306 ^[44] When the Battle of the Margus began, Carinus' prefect Aristobulus also defected. The Battle of the Margus was fought in May 285 between the armies of Roman Emperors Diocletian and Carinus in the valley of the Margus River (today ^[45] In the course of the battle, Carinus was killed by his own men. Following Diocletian's victory, both the western and the eastern armies acclaimed him emperor. ^[46] Diocletian exacted an oath of allegiance from the defeated army and departed for Italy. ^[47]

Early rule

Diocletian may have become involved in battles against the Quadi and Marcomanni immediately after the Battle of the Margus. Quadi were a smaller Germanic tribe, about which little definitive information is known Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe, probably related to the Buri, Suebi or Suevi He eventually made his way to northern Italy and made an imperial government, but it is not known whether Diocletian visited the city of Rome at this time. ^[48] There is a contemporary issue of coins suggestive of an imperial adventus (arrival) for the city,^[49] but some modern historians state that Diocletian avoided the city, and that he did so on principle; the city and its Senate were no longer politically relevant to the affairs of the empire, and needed to be taught as much. The adventus was a ceremony in Ancient Rome, in which an emperor was formally welcomed into a city either during a progress or after a military campaign often (but Diocletian dated his reign from his elevation by the army, not the date of his ratification by the Senate. ^[50] If Diocletian ever did enter Rome, he did not stay long;^[51] he is attested back in the Balkans by November 2, 285, on campaign against the Sarmatians. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 Events By Place Roman Empire July — Rival Emperors Carinus and Diocletian face each other in the Battle of the Margus The Sarmatians, Sarmatae or Sauromatae ( Old Iranian Sarumatah 'archer' Σαρμάτες ^[52]

Diocletian replaced the prefect of Rome with his consular colleague Bassus. Most officials who had served under Carinus, however, retained their offices under Diocletian. ^[53] In an act the epitomator Aurelius Victor denotes as unusual act of clementia,^[54] Diocletian did not kill or depose Carinus' traitorous praetorian prefect and consul Ti. Sextus Aurelius Victor (ca 320-ca 390 was an historian and politician of the Roman Empire. Claudius Aurelius Aristobulus, but confirmed him in both roles,^[55] and later gave him the proconsulate of Africa and the rank of urban prefect. ^[56] The other figures who retained their offices might have also betrayed Carinus. ^[57]

Maximian made co-emperor

Maximian was by all accounts a loyal man, in spite of his military and moral inadequacies. His consistent loyalty proved an important component of the Tetrarchy's early successes. ^[58]

Recent history had demonstrated that sole rulership was dangerous to the stability of the empire. The assassinations of Aurelian (r. Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 270–275) and Probus testified to that truth. ^[29] Conflict boiled in every province of the empire, from Gaul to Syria, from Egypt to the lower Danube. It was too much for a single person to control, and Diocletian needed a lieutenant. ^[59] At some time in 285 at Mediolanum (Milan, Italy),^[60] Diocletian raised his fellow-officer Maximian to the office of Caesar, making him co-emperor. Mediolanum, the ancient Milan, was an important Celtic and then Roman centre Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maximianus Herculius (c 250 &ndash c Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character ^[61]

The concept of dual rulership was nothing new to the Roman Empire. Augustus, the first emperor (r. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was 27 BC–AD 14), had shared power with his colleagues, and more formal offices of co-emperor had existed from Marcus Aurelius (r. Marcus Aurelius Antoninus Augustus (often referred to as "the wise" ( April 26, 121 – March 17, 180) was Roman Emperor 161–180) on. ^[62] Most recently, the emperor Carus and his sons had ruled together, albeit unsuccessfully. Diocletian was in a less comfortable position than most of his predecessors, as he had a daughter, Valeria, but no sons. His co-ruler had to be from outside his family. He could not, therefore, be easily trusted. ^[63] Some historians state that Diocletian, like some emperors before him, adopted Maximian as his filius Augusti, his "Augustan son", upon his appointment to the throne. ^[64] This argument has not been universally accepted. ^[65]

The relationship between Diocletian and Maximian was quickly couched in religious terms. Circa 287 Diocletian assumed the title Iovius, and Maximian assumed the title Herculius. ^[66] The titles were probably meant to convey certain characteristics of their associated leaders; Diocletian, in Jovian style, would take on the dominating roles of planning and commanding; Maximian, in Herculian mode, would act as Jupiter's heroic subordinate. In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. A hero (from Greek grc ἥρως hērōs) in Greek mythology and Folklore, was originally a Demigod, the offspring of a mortal and ^[67] For all their religious connotations, the emperors were not "gods" in the tradition of the Imperial cult—although they may have been hailed as such in Imperial panegyrics. The Imperial cult in Ancient Rome was the worship of a few select emperors as gods once they were deceased the only emperor to Instead, they were seen as the gods' representatives, effecting their will on earth. ^[68] The shift to divine sanctification from military acclamation took the power to appoint emperors away from the army. Divine legitimization was what separated Diocletian and Maximian from potential rivals, more than mere military power or dynastic claims. ^[69] After his acclamation, Maximian was dispatched to fight the rebel Bagaudae in Gaul. In the time of the Roman Empire bagaudae (also spelled bacaudae) were groups of peasant insurgents who emerged during the " Crisis of the Third Century Diocletian returned to the East. ^[70]

Conflict with Sarmatia and Persia

Diocletian progressed slowly. By November 2, he had only reached Citivas Iovia (Botivo, near Ptuj, Slovenia). Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 Ptuj (Pettau Latin: Poetovio) is a City and one of 11 urban municipalities in Slovenia. Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west ^[71] In the Balkans during the autumn of 285, he encountered a tribe of Sarmatians who demanded assistance from the emperor. The Sarmatians requested that Diocletian either help them recover their lost lands or grant them pasturage rights within the empire. Diocletian refused and fought a battle with them, but was unable to secure a complete victory. The nomadic pressures of the European Plain remained, and could not be solved by a single war; soon the Sarmatians would have to be fought again. The European Plain or Great European Plain is a Plain in Europe. ^[72] He wintered in Nicomedia. Nicomedia ( Greek: Νικομήδεια modern İzmit) was founded by Nicomedes I of Bithynia at the head of the Gulf of Astacus which opens ^[73] There may have been a revolt in the eastern provinces at this time, because Diocletian is brought settlers from Asia to populate emptied farmlands in Thrace. The Roman province of Asia, also called Phrygia was an administrative unit added to the late Republic. Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe ^[74] He visited Judea the following spring. Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard ^[75] Presumably, he returned to spend the following winter in Nicomedia. Diocletian's stay in the East saw diplomatic success in the conflict with Persia: in 287, Bahram II granted him precious gifts, declared open friendship with the empire, and invited Diocletian to visit him. ^[76] Roman sources insist that the act was entirely voluntary. ^[77]

Around the same time, perhaps in 287,^[78] Persia relinquished claims on Armenia and recognized Roman authority over territory to the west and south of the Tigris. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani The western portion of Armenia was incorporated into the Roman empire and made a province. Tiridates III, Arsacid claimant to the Armenian throne and Roman client, had been disinherited and forced to take refuge in the Roman empire after the Persian conquest of 252/3. Tiridates III (or Trdat III; Armenian: hy Տրդատ Գ 250s – Circa 330 was the king of Arsacid Armenia (285-339 and is also known The Arsacid Dynasty (Arshakuni Dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Armenia from 54 to 428 In 287, he returned to lay claim to the eastern half of his ancestral domain. He encountered no opposition. ^[79] Bahram II's gifts were widely recognized as symbolic of a victory in the ongoing conflict with Persia; Diocletian was hailed as the "founder of eternal peace". The events might have represented a formal end to Carus' eastern campaign, which probably ended without an acknowledged peace. ^[80] At the conclusion of discussions with the Persians, Diocletian re-organized the Mesopotamian frontier and fortified the city of Circesium (Buseire, Syria) the Euphrates. The Euphrates ( ( Arabic: ar نهر الفرات; Turkish: tr Fırat Syriac: syr ܦܪܬ; Hebrew: he פרת ^[81]

Maximian made Augustus

Maximian's campaigns were not proceeding as smoothly. The Bagaudae had been easily suppressed, but Carausius, the man he had put in charge of operations against Saxon and Frankish pirates on the Saxon Shore, had begun keeping the goods seized from the pirates for himself. Marcus Aurelius Mausaeus Carausius (died 293 was a military commander of the Roman Empire in the 3rd century The Saxons or Saxon people were a Confederation of Old Germanic tribes. The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group Piracy is Robbery committed at sea or sometimes on shore without a commission from a sovereign Nation (as distinct from Privateering The Saxon Shore ( Latin: litus Saxonicum) was a military command of the late Roman Empire, consisting of a series of fortifications on both sides of the Maximian issued a death-warrant for his larcenous subordinate. Carausius fled the Continent, proclaimed himself Augustus, and spurred Britain and northwestern Gaul into open revolt against Maximian and Diocletian. ^[82] Spurred by the crisis, on April 1, 286,^[83] Maximian took up the title of Augustus. Events 527 - Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne For the processor see Intel 80286. Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman ^[84] Maximian's appointment is unusual in that it was impossible for Diocletian to have been present to witness the event. It has even been suggested that Maximian usurped the title, and was only later recognized by Diocletian in hopes of avoiding civil war. ^[85] Although this suggestion is unpopular, it is clear that Diocletian meant for Maximian to act with a certain amount of independence from Diocletian. ^[86]

Carausius, rebel emperor of Roman Britain. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 Most of the evidence for Carausius' reign comes from his coinage, which was of generally fine quality. ^[87]

Maximian realized that he could not immediately suppress the rogue commander, and so, for the whole campaigning season of 287, campaigned against tribes beyond the Rhine instead. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge ^[88] The following spring, as Maximian prepared a fleet for an expedition against Carausius, Diocletian returned from the East to meet Maximian. The two emperors agreed on a joint campaign against the Alamanni. The Alamanni, Allemanni, or Alemanni were originally an alliance of Germanic tribes located around the upper Main river ( Germany Diocletian invaded Germania through Raetia while Maximian progressed from Mainz. Each emperor burned crops and food supplies as he went, destroying the Germans' means of sustenance. ^[89] The two men added territory to the empire and allowed Maximian to continue preparations against Carausius without further disturbance. ^[90] On his return to the East, Diocletian managed what was probably another rapid campaign against the resurgent Sarmatians. No details survive, but surviving inscriptions indicate that Diocletian took the title Sarmaticus Maximus after 289. ^[91]

In the East, Diocletian engaged in diplomacy with desert tribes in the regions between Rome and Persia. He might have been attempting to persuade them to ally themselves with Rome, thus reviving the old, Rome-friendly, Palmyrene sphere of influence,^[92] or simply attempting to reduce the frequency of their incursions. Palmyra ( Arabic: تدمر Tadmor) was in ancient times an important city of central Syria, located in an Oasis 215 km northeast of Damascus A sphere of influence ( SOI) is an area or region over which an organization or state exerts some kind of indirect cultural economic military or political domination ^[93] No details survive for these events. ^[94] Some of the princes of these states were Persian client kings; a disturbing fact in light of increasing tensions with that kingdom. ^[95] In the West, Maximian lost the fleet built in 288 and 289, probably in the early spring of 290. The panegyrist who refers to the loss suggests that its cause was a storm,^[96] but this might simply be the panegyrist's attempt to play down the embarrassment of defeat. ^[97] Diocletian broke off his tour of the Eastern provinces soon thereafter. He returned with haste to the West, reaching Emesa by May 10, 290,^[98] and Sirmium on the Danube by July 1, 290. Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Events By Place Roman Empire Diocletian and Maximian meet in Milan on the five-year anniversary of their rule to discuss "July 1st" redirects here For the Ayumi Hamasaki song see H (song. Events By Place Roman Empire Diocletian and Maximian meet in Milan on the five-year anniversary of their rule to discuss ^[99]

Diocletian met Maximian in Milan in the winter of 290–1, either in late December 290 or January 291. ^[100] The meeting was undertaken with a sense of solemn pageantry. The emperors spent most of their time in public appearances. It has been surmised that the ceremonies were arranged to demonstrate Diocletian's continuing support for his faltering colleague. ^[92] A deputation from the Roman Senate met with the emperors, renewing that body's infrequent contact with the imperial office. ^[101] The choice of Milan over Rome further snubbed the capital's pride. The panegyric detailing the events implies that the true center of the empire is not Rome, but where the emperor sits: ". . . the capital of the Empire appeared to be there, where the two emperors met. "^[102] Decisions on matters of politics and war were most likely made, but they were made in secret. ^[103] The Augusti would not meet again until 303. ^[92]

Tetrarchy

Main article: Tetrarchy

Foundation of the Tetrarchy

Some time after his return, and before 293, Diocletian transferred command of the war against Carausius from Maximian to Flavius Constantius. Tetrarchy ( Greek: "leadership of four " can be applied to any system of government where power is divided between four individuals Constantius was a former governor of Dalmatia and a man of military experience stretching back to Aurelian's campaigns against Zenobia (272–73). Lucius Domitius Aurelianus ( September 9, 214 or 215 &ndashSeptember or October 275 known in English as Aurelian, Roman Emperor (270&ndash275 Zenobia (زنوبيا 240-after 274 was a Syrian queen who lived in the 3rd century He was Maximian's praetorian prefect in Gaul, and the husband to Maximian's daughter, Theodora. Flavia Maximiana Theodora (known as Theodora was the stepdaughter of Maximian. On March 1, 293 at Milan, Maximian gave Constantius the office of Caesar. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Events By Place Roman Empire March 1 — Diocletian and Maximian appoint Constantius Chlorus and Galerius ^[104] In the spring of 293, in either Philippopolis (Plovdiv, Bulgaria) or Sirmium, Diocletian would do the same Galerius, husband to Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and perhaps Diocletian's praetorian prefect. The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 ^[105] Constantius was assigned Gaul and Britain. Galerius was assigned Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and responsibility for the eastern borderlands. ^[106]

This arrangement is called the Tetrarchy, from a Greek term meaning "rulership by four". The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c ^[107] The Tetrarchic emperors were more or less sovereign in their own lands, and they travelled with their own imperial courts, administrators, secretaries, and armies. ^[108] They were joined by blood and marriage; Diocletian and Maximian now styled themselves as brothers. The senior co-emperors formally adopted Galerius and Constantius as sons in 293. These relationships implied a line of succession. Galerius and Constantius would become Augusti after Diocletian and Maximian's departure. Maximian's son Maxentius, and Constantius' son Constantine would then become Caesars. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c 278 - 28 October 312) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312 Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine In preparation for their future roles, Constantine and Maxentius were taken to Diocletian's court in Nicomedia. ^[109]

Conflict in the Balkans and Egypt

A Trajanic temple on the island of Philae, the newly established border between the Nobatae and Blemmyes and Roman Egypt^[110]

Diocletian spent the spring of 293 traveling with Galerius from Sirmium to Byzantium (Istanbul, Turkey). Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Philae ( Greek:) or Pilak or P'aaleq ( Egyptian: remote place or the end or the angle island) or Arabic Nobatia (c 350 AD - 600 AD also known as Nobadia was an ancient African Christian kingdom in Lower Nubia and subsequently a region of the larger The Blemmyes ( Latin Blemmyae) are a race of Legendary creatures that were said to live in Africa, in Nubia, Kush, or Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Diocletian then returned to Sirmium, where he would remain for the following winter and spring. He campaigned against the Sarmatians again in 294, probably in the autumn,^[111] and won a victory against them. The defeat kept the Sarmatians from the Danube provinces for a long time. He built forts north of the Danube,^[112] at Aquincum (Budapest, Hungary), Bononia (Vidin, Bulgaria), Ulcisia Vetera, Castra Florentium, Intercisa (Dunaújváros, Hungary), and Onagrinum (Begeč, Serbia). The ancient city of Aquincum was situated on the North-Eastern borders of the Pannonia province within the Roman Empire. Budapest ( also /ˈbʊ-/) is the capital city of Hungary. As the largest city of Hungary it serves as the country's principal Political, Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Vidin (Видин is a town on the southern bank of the Danube in northwestern Bulgaria. Dunaújváros ( Dunapentele, 1951&ndash1961 Sztálinváros; Croatian: Pantel(ija) is a city in Central Hungary, along the Begeč ( Cyrillic: Бегеч is a village in Serbian province of Vojvodina. The new forts became part of a new defensive line called the Ripa Sarmatica. ^[113] In 295 and 296 Diocletian campaigned in the region again, and won a victory over the Carpi in the summer of 296. ^[114] By the end of his reign, Diocletian had secured the entire length of the Danube, provided it with forts, bridgeheads, highways, and walled towns, and sent fifteen or more legions to patrol the region. The defense came at a heavy cost, but was a significant achievement in an area difficult to defend. ^[115]

Galerius, meanwhile, was engaged in disputes in Upper Egypt. Upper Egypt (صعيد مصر Sa'id Misr) is a narrow strip of land that extends from the cataract boundaries of modern-day Aswan to the area between He would return to Syria in 295 to fight the revanchist Persian Empire. ^[116] Diocletian's attempts to bring the Egyptian tax system in line with imperial standards stirred discontent, and a revolt swept the region after Galerius' departure. ^[117] The usurper L. Domitius Domitianus declared himself Augustus in July or August 297. Lucius Domitius Domitianus was a Roman usurper against Diocletian, who seized the power for a short time in Aegyptus. Much of Egypt, including Alexandria, recognized his rule. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια ^[118] Diocletian moved into Egypt to suppress him, first putting down rebels in the Thebaid in the autumn of 297,^[111] then moving on to siege Alexandria. The Thebaid or Thebais (Θηβαΐς or Θηβαΐδα is the region of Ancient Egypt containing the thirteen southernmost nomes of Upper Egypt Domitianus died in December 297,^[119] by which time Diocletian had secured control of the Egyptian countryside. Alexandria, whose defense was organized under Diocletian's former corrector Aurelius Achilleus, held out until a later date, probably March 298. A corrector (English plural Correctors) is a person who or object that practices Correction, usually by removing or rectifying errors Achilleus (fl 3rd century AD assumed the title of emperor under Diocletian and reigned over Egypt for some time ^[120]

Bureaucratic affairs were completed during Diocletian's stay:^[121] a census took place, and Alexandria, in punishment for its rebellion, lost the ability to mint independently. ^[122] Diocletian's reforms in the region, combined with those of Septimus Severus, brought Egyptian administrative practices much closer to Roman standards. ^[123] Diocletian travelled south along the Nile the following summer, where he visited Oxyrhynchus and Elephantine. Oxyrhynchus (Ὀξύρρυγχος "sharp-nosed" ancient Egyptian Pr-Medjed; Coptic Pemdje; modern Egyptian Arabic Elephantine (جزيرة الفنتين is an Island in the River Nile, located just downstream of the First Cataract at at the southern border of ^[122] In Nubia, he made peace with the Nobatae and Blemmyes tribes. Nobatia (c 350 AD - 600 AD also known as Nobadia was an ancient African Christian kingdom in Lower Nubia and subsequently a region of the larger The Blemmyes ( Latin Blemmyae) are a race of Legendary creatures that were said to live in Africa, in Nubia, Kush, or Under the terms of the peace treaty Rome's borders moved north to Philae and the two tribes received an annual gold stipend. Philae ( Greek:) or Pilak or P'aaleq ( Egyptian: remote place or the end or the angle island) or Arabic Diocletian left Africa quickly after the treaty, moving from Upper Egypt in September 298 to Syria in February 299. He met up with Galerius in Mesopotamia. ^[124]

War with Persia

See also: Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids and Roman-Persian Wars

Invasion, counterinvasion

In 294, Narseh, a son of Shapur who had been passed over for the Sassanid succession, came to power in Persia. Relations during the Republic The first direct contact between the Republic and the Parthians was c Narseh (whose name is also sometimes written as Narses or Narseus) was the seventh Sassanid King of Persia (293&ndash302 and son of Shapur Narseh eliminated Bahram III, a young man installed in the wake of Bahram II's death in 293. Bahram III (died 293 was the sixth Sassanid King of Persia in 293 ^[125] In early 294, Narseh sent Diocletian the customary package of gifts between the empires, and Diocletian responded with an exchange of ambassadors. Within Persia, however, Narseh was destroying every trace of his immediate predecessors from public monuments. He sought to identify himself with the warlike kings Ardashir (r. Ardashir I, founder of the Sassanid dynasty, was ruler of Istakhr (206-241 subsequently Persia 226–41) and Shapur (r. Shapur I was the second Sassanid King of the Second Persian Empire. 241–72), the same Shapur who had sacked Roman Antioch and skinned the Emperor Valerian (r. For other uses see Valerian. Publius Licinius Valerianus (c 200 - after 260 commonly known in English as Valerian 253–260) to decorate his war temple. ^[126]

Narseh declared war on Rome in 295 or 296. He appears to have first invaded western Armenia, where he seized the lands delivered to Tiridates in the peace of 287. ^[127] Narseh moved south into Roman Mesopotamia in 297, where he inflicted a severe defeat on Galerius in the region between Carrhae (Harran, Turkey) and Callinicum (Ar-Raqqah, Syria)^[128] (and thus, the historian Fergus Millar notes, probably somewhere on the Balikh river). Ar-Raqqah ( الرقة, also spelled Rakka) is a city in north central Syria located on the north bank of the Euphrates River, about 160 km Fergus Millar FBA (born 5 July 1935) is Camden Professor of Ancient History Emeritus, Oxford University The Balikh River (kurd Belih originates in Turkey between the Euphrates and Karaca dağ (mountain flows almost due south and empties in Syria into ^[129] Diocletian may or may not have been present at the battle,^[130] but he would divest himself of all responsibility in a ceremony soon afterwards at Antioch. The official version of events was made clear: Diocletian blamed Galerius for the defeat. Diocletian forced Galerius to walk a mile in advance of his imperial cart while still clad in the purple robes of an emperor. ^[131]

Detail of Galerius attacking Narseh on the Arch of Galerius at Thessaloniki, Greece, the city where Galerius carried out most of his administrative actions^[132]

Galerius was reinforced, probably in the spring of 298, by a new contingent collected from the empire's Danubian holdings. Galerius Maximianus ( ca. 260&ndashlate April or early May 311 formally Gaius Galerius Valerius Maximianus was Roman Emperor from 305 to 311 Narseh (whose name is also sometimes written as Narses or Narseus) was the seventh Sassanid King of Persia (293&ndash302 and son of Shapur The Arch of Galerius ( Modern Greek: τόξο του Γαλερίου or Aψίδα του Γαλερίου and the Tomb of Galerius Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία ^[133] Narseh did not advance from Armenia and Mesopotamia, leaving Galerius to lead the offensive in 298 with an attack on northern Mesopotamia via Armenia. ^[134] It is unclear if Diocletian was present to assist the campaign; he might have returned to Egypt or Syria. ^[135] Narseh retreated to Armenia to fight Galerius' force, to Narseh's disadvantage; the rugged Armenian terrain was favorable to Roman infantry, but unfavorable to Sassanid cavalry. In two battles, Galerius won major victories over Narseh. During the second encounter, Roman forces seized Narseh's camp, his treasury, his harem, and his wife. ^[136] Galerius continued moving down the Tigris, and took the Persian capital at Ctesiphon before returning to Roman territory along the Euphrates. ^[137]

Peace negotiations

Narseh sent an ambassador to Galerius to plead for the return of his wives and children in the course of the war, but Galerius had dismissed him. ^[138] Serious peace negotiations began in the spring of 299. Diocletian and Galerius' magister memoriae (secretary) Sicorius Probus was sent to Narseh to present terms. ^[138] The conditions of the peace were heavy;^[139] Armenia returned to Roman domination, with the fort of Ziatha as its border; Caucasian Iberia would pay allegiance to Rome under a Roman appointee; Nisibis, now under Roman rule, would become the sole conduit for trade between Persia and Rome; and Rome would exercise control over the five satrapies between the Tigris and Armenia: Ingilene, Sophanene (Sophene), Arzanene (Aghdznik), Corduene (Carduene), and Zabdicene (near modern Hakkâri, Turkey). This article is about the people of ancient Georgia For the Iberians of ancient Iberian Peninsula see Iberians. For the kingdom please see Kingdom of Sophene. Sophene (Ծոփք - Tsopk) was a province of the Armenian Kingdom and of the Roman Empire Aghdznik (Աղձնիք also known as Altzniq or Arzanene, was a region of old Armenia that existed before AD 300, when it was ruled by Bakur Corduene (also known as Gorduene, Cordyene, Cardyene, Carduene, Gordyene, Gordyaea, Korduene, Korchayk Hakkâri is a city in the far southeast of Turkey. The name Hakkâri comes from the Aramaic Akkare (ܐܟܪ̈ܐ meaning 'farmers' These regions included the passage of the Tigris through the Anti-Taurus range; the Bitlis pass, the quickest southerly route into Persian Armenia; and access to the Tur Abdin plateau. Anti-Taurus is a mountain range running northeast from the Taurus Mountains. Bitlis ( Kurdish: Bilîs or Bedlîs Armenian: Baghaghesh, later Baghesh) is a town in eastern Turkey and the Tur Abdin ( Syriac:ܛܘܪ ܥܒܕܝܢ is a hilly region of south east Turkey incorporating the eastern half of Mardin Province, and ^[140]

A stretch of land containing the later strategic strongholds of Amida (Diyarbakır, Turkey) and Bezabde came under firm Roman military occupation. Diyarbakır (دیاربکر Diyâr-i Bekr 'land of the Bekr ' (from Persian) Kurdish Amed Zazaki language Dêrbekir Syriac ^[141] With these territories, Rome would have an advance station north of Ctesiphon, and would be able to slow any future advance of Persian forces through the region. ^[139] The Tigris was said to have become the boundary between the two empires, but what this means is unclear, as the satrapies listed all lie on the far side of the river. Millar suggests that the satrapies might have been held under a loose Roman hegemony, without military occupation. ^[141] At the conclusion of the peace, Tiridates regained both his throne and the entirety of his ancestral claim. ^[138] Rome secured a wide zone of cultural influence, which led to a wide diffusion of Syriac Christianity from a center at Nisibis in later decades, and the eventual Christianization of Armenia. Syriac Christianity is a culturally and linguistically distinctive community within Eastern Christianity. ^[139]

Religious persecutions

Main article: Diocletianic Persecution

Early persecutions

At the conclusion of the peace, Diocletian and Galerius returned to Syrian Antioch. The Diocletianic Persecution was the last and most severe episode of Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire. ^[132] At some time in 299, the emperors took part in a ceremony of sacrifice and divination in an attempt to predict the future. Sacrifice (from a Middle English verb meaning "to make sacred" from Old French, from Latin sacrificium: sacr, "sacred" Divination (from Latin divinare "to be inspired by a god" related to Divine, Diva and Deus) is the attempt of ascertaining The haruspices were unable to read the entrails of the sacrificed animals, and blamed Christians in the imperial household. In Roman practice inherited from the Etruscans, a haruspex (plural haruspices) was a man trained to practice a form of Divination called haruspicy The emperors ordered all members of the court to perform a sacrifice to purify the palace. The emperors sent letters to the military command, demanding the entire army perform the required sacrifices or face discharge. ^[142] Diocletian was conservative in matters of religion, a man faithful to the traditional Roman pantheon and understanding of demands for religious purification,^[143] but Eusebius, Lactantius and Constantine state that it was Galerius, not Diocletian, who was the prime supporter of the purge, and its greatest beneficiary. Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine ^[144] Galerius, even more devoted and passionate than Diocletian, saw political advantage in the politics of persecution. He was willing to break with a government policy of inaction on the issue. ^[145]

Antioch was Diocletian's primary residence from 299 to 302. ^[146] He visited Egypt once, over the winter of 301–2, and issued a grain dole in Alexandria. ^[145] Following some public disputes with Manicheans, Diocletian ordered that the leading followers of Mani be burnt alive along with their scriptures. Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Mani (in Persian: مانی Syriac: syr-Syrc ܡܐܢܝ (c 210–276 AD was the founder of Manichaeism, an ancient Gnostic Religion In a March 31, 302 rescript from Alexandria, he declared that low-status Manicheans must be executed by the blade, and high-status Manicheans must be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus (Marmara Island, Turkey) or the mines of Phaeno in southern Palestine. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor Events By Place Roman Empire Diocletian begins passing laws against Christians. Map of Marmara Adasi by author www1yachtuacom Mr Valery Kulaga --> Marmara is a Turkish Island in the Sea Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury. ^[147] Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion: its novelty, its alien origins, the way it corrupted the morals of the Roman race, and its inherent opposition to long-standing religious traditions. ^[148] Manichaeanism was also supported by Persia at the time, compounding religious dissent with international politics. ^[149] Excepting Persian support, the reasons why he disliked Manichaenism were equally applicable, if not more so, to Christianity, his next target. ^[150]

Catacomb of Saints Marcellinus and Peter on the Via Labicana. The Via Labicana was an ancient road of Italy, leading east southeast from Rome. Christ between Peter and Paul. Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and To the sides are the martyrs Gorgonius, Peter, Marcellinus, Tiburtius

Great Persecution

Diocletian returned to Antioch in the autumn of 302. Saints Tiburtius and Susanna were two Roman Catholic martyrs the Feast day of each of whom is 11 August. He ordered that the deacon Romanus of Caesarea have his tongue removed for defiling the order of the courts and interrupting official sacrifices. Deacon is a role in the Christian Church that is generally associated with service of some kind but which varies among theological and denominational traditions Saint Romanus of Caesarea (also known as Romanus of Antioch) is venerated as a Martyr. Romanus was then sent to prison, where he was executed on November 17, 303. Events 284 - Diocletian is proclaimed emperor by his soldiers Events By Place Roman Empire Persuaded by Galerius, Diocletian launches the last major persecution of Christians The arrogance of this Christian displeased Diocletian, and he left the city for Nicomedia in the winter, accompanied by Galerius. ^[151] According to Lactantius, Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over imperial policy towards Christians while wintering at Nicomedia in 302. Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods, but Galerius pushed for extermination. The two men sought the advice of the oracle of Apollo at Didyma. An oracle is a person or agency considered to be a source of wise counsel or prophetic opinion an Infallible authority usually spiritual in nature Didyma (Greek Δίδυμα was an ancient Ionian sanctuary the modern Didim, Turkey, containing a ^[152] The oracle responded that "the just on earth"^[153] hindered Apollo's ability to provide advice. These "just", Diocletian was informed by members of the court, could only refer to the Christians of the empire. At the behest of his court, Diocletian acceded to demands for universal persecution. ^[154]

On February 23, 303, Diocletian ordered that the newly built church at Nicomedia be razed. Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Events By Place Roman Empire Persuaded by Galerius, Diocletian launches the last major persecution of Christians He demanded that its scriptures be burned, and seized its precious stores for the treasury. ^[155] The next day, Diocletian's first "Edict against the Christians" was published. ^[156] The edict ordered the destruction of Christian scriptures and places of worship across the Empire, and prohibited Christians from assembling for worship. ^[157] Before the end of February, a fire destroyed part of the imperial palace. ^[158] Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christians, conspirators who had plotted with the eunuchs of the palace. A eunuch (ˈjuːnək is a Castrated man in particular one castrated early enough to have major hormonal consequences the term usually refers to those castrated in order to An investigation was commissioned, but no responsible party was found. Executions followed anyway, and the palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were executed. Saint Gorgonius was a Christian martyr part of the group Gorgonius Peter Cubicularius and Dorotheus, who died in 304 AD at Nicomedia during the persecution One individual, Peter, was stripped, raised high, and scourged. Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds, and he was slowly boiled over an open flame. Boiling to death is a crude and torturous method of execution. The executions continued until at least April 24, 303, when six individuals, including the bishop Anthimus, were decapitated. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to Events By Place Roman Empire Persuaded by Galerius, Diocletian launches the last major persecution of Christians A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight Anthimus of Nicomedia (martyred 303 or 311&ndash12 was the bishop of Nicomedia in Bithynia, where he was beheaded during a Persecution of Christians, Decapitation (from Latin, caput, capitis, meaning head or beheading, is the cutting off of the head of a person or animal ^[159] A second fire occurred sixteen days after the first. Galerius left the city for Rome, declaring Nicomedia unsafe. ^[158] Diocletian would soon follow. ^[159]

Although further persecutionary edicts followed, compelling the arrest of the Christian clergy and universal acts of sacrifice,^[160] the persecutionary edicts were ultimately unsuccessful; most Christians escaped punishment, and even pagans were generally unsympathetic to the persecution. The martyrs' sufferings strengthened the resolve of their fellow Christians. The term martyr ( Greek μάρτυς martys "witness" is most commonly used today to describe an individual who sacrifices their life (or personal freedom ^[161] Constantius and Maximian did not apply the later persecutionary edicts, and left the Christians of the West unharmed. ^[162] Galerius rescinded the edict in 311, announcing that the persecution had failed to bring Christians back to traditional religion. ^[163] Within twenty-five years of the persecution's inauguration, the Christian emperor Constantine would rule the empire alone. He would reverse the consequences of the edicts, and return all confiscated property to Christians. ^[164] Under Constantine's rule, Christianity would become the empire's preferred religion. ^[165]

Later life

Illness and abdication

Diocletian's Palace at Salona (Split, Croatia)

Diocletian entered the city of Rome in the early winter of 303. Diocletian's Palace ( Dioklecijanova palača in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built by the emperor Diocletian Split (Spalatum Ancient Greek: Aspálathos, Ασπάλαθος Spalato is the largest and most important Dalmatian city the second-largest Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between On November 20, he celebrated, with Maximian, the twentieth anniversary of his reign (vicennalia), the tenth anniversary of the Tetrarchy (decennalia), and a triumph for the war with Persia. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Diocletian soon grew impatient with the city. It did not give enough deference to his supreme authority; it expected him to act the part of an aristocratic ruler, not a monarchic one. On December 20, 303,^[166] Diocletian cut short his stay in Rome and left for the north. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire Persuaded by Galerius, Diocletian launches the last major persecution of Christians He did not even perform the ceremonies investing him with his ninth consulate; he did them in Ravenna on January 1, 304 instead. Ravenna is a City and Comune in the Emilia-Romagna region of Italy. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Events By Place Roman Empire The Roman colony of Konstanz is founded ^[167] There are suggestions in the Panegyrici Latini and Lactantius' account that Diocletian arranged plans for his and Maximian's future retirement of power in Rome. The Panegyrici Latini or Latin Panegyrics is a collection of twelve ancient Roman Panegyric orations Maximian, according to these accounts, swore to uphold Diocletian's plan in a ceremony in the temple of Jupiter. See Temple of Jupiter for temples to him in other places The Temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus ("Jupiter greatest and best" also known ^[168]

From Ravenna, Diocletian left for the Danube. There, possibly in Galerius' company, he took part in a campaign against the Carpi. ^[166] He contracted a minor illness while on campaign, but his condition quickly worsened and he chose to travel in a litter. The litter is a class of Wheelless Vehicles a type of Human-powered transport, for the transport of persons In the late summer he left for Nicomedia. On November 20, he appeared in public to dedicate the opening of the circus beside his palace. Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, He collapsed soon after the ceremonies. Over the winter of 304–5 he kept within his palace at all times. Rumors alleging that Diocletian's death was merely being kept secret until Galerius could come to assume power spread through the city. On December 13, he seemed to have finally died. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life The city was sent into a mourning from which it was only retrieved by public declarations of his survival. When Diocletian reappeared in public on March 1, 305, he was emaciated and barely recognizable. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office ^[169]

Galerius arrived in the city later in March. According to Lactantius, he came armed with plans to reconstitute the Tetrarchy, force Diocletian to step down, and fill the imperial office with men compliant to his will. Through coercion and threats, he eventually convinced Diocletian to comply with his plan. Lactantius also claims that he had done the same to Maximian at Sirmium. ^[170] On May 1, 305, Diocletian called an assembly of his generals, traditional companion troops, and representatives from distant legions. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events By Place Roman Empire May 1 — Diocletian and Maximian, Emperors of Rome retire from office They met at the same hill, 5 km (3. The kilometre ( American spelling: kilometer) symbol km is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one thousand 1 mi) out of Nicomedia, where Diocletian had been proclaimed emperor. A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States In front of a statue of Jupiter, his patron deity, Diocletian addressed the crowd. With tears in his eyes, he told them of his weakness, his need for rest, and his will to resign. He declared that he needed to pass the duty of empire on to someone stronger. He thus became the first Roman emperor to voluntarily abdicate his title. ^[171]

Most in the crowd believed they knew what would follow; Constantine and Maxentius, the only adult sons of a reigning emperor, men who long been preparing to succeed their fathers, would be granted the title of Caesar. Constantine had traveled through Palestine at the right hand of Diocletian, and was present at the palace in Nicomedia in 303 and 305. It is likely that Maxentius received the same treatment. ^[172] In Lactantius' account, when Diocletian announced that he was to resign, the entire crowd turned to face Constantine. ^[173] It was not to be: Severus and Maximin were declared Caesars. Flavius Valerius Severus (or rarely Severus II) (died 16 September, 307) was a Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 307 This article deals with 4th century Roman Emperor For other uses of the name see Maximin. Maximin appeared and took Diocletian's robes. On the same day, Severus received his robes from Maximian in Milan. Constantius succeeded Maximian as Augustus of the West, but Constantine and Maxentius were entirely ignored in the transition of power. This did not bode well for the future security of the Tetrarchic system. ^[174]

Retirement and death

Diocletian retired to his homeland, Dalmatia. He moved into the expansive palace he had built on the Adriatic near the administrative center of Salona. Diocletian's Palace ( Dioklecijanova palača in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built by the emperor Diocletian Maximian retired to villas in Campania or Lucania. Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 Lucania was an ancient district of southern Italy, extending from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Gulf of Taranto. ^[175] Their homes were distant from political life, but Diocletian and Maximian were close enough to remain in regular contact with each other. ^[176] Galerius assumed the consular fasces in 308 with Diocletian as his colleague. In the autumn of 308, Galerius again conferred with Diocletian at Carnuntum (Petronell-Carnuntum, Austria). Carnuntum (Καρνοιις in Ptolemy) was an important Roman army camp in what is now Austria. Petronell-Carnuntum is a community of Bruck an der Leitha in Austria. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Diocletian and Maximian were both present on November 11, 308, to see Galerius appoint Licinius to be Augustus in place of Severus, who had died at the hands of Maxentius. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Events By Place Roman Empire November 11 — The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire the For other Romans of this name see Licinius (gens. Valerius Licinianus Licinius (c He ordered Maximian, who had attempted to return to power after his retirement, to step down permanently. At Carnuntum people begged Diocletian to return to the throne, to resolve the conflicts that had arisen through Constantine's rise to power and Maxentius' usurpation. ^[177] Diocletian's reply: "If you could show the cabbage that I planted with my own hands to your emperor, he definitely wouldn’t dare suggest that I replace the peace and happiness of this place with the storms of a never-satisfied greed. The cabbage ( Brassica oleracea var capitata) is a leafy garden plant of the Family Brassicaceae (or Cruciferae used as a "^[178]

He lived on for three more years, spending his days in his palace gardens. He saw his Tetrarchic system implode, torn by the selfish ambitions of his successors. He heard of Maximian's third claim to the throne, his forced suicide, his damnatio memoriae. Damnatio memoriae is the Latin phrase literally meaning "damnation of memory" in the sense of removed from the remembrance. In his own palace, statues and portraits of his former companion emperor were torn down and destroyed. Deep in despair and illness, Diocletian may have committed suicide. He died on December 3, 311. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French Events By Place Roman Empire May 5 — Galerius issues his Edict of Toleration ending Persecution of Christians ^[179][5]

Reforms

Tetrarchic and ideological

Modern view of Diocletian's Palace near Salona (in Split, Croatia)

Diocletian saw his work as that of a restorer, a figure of authority, whose duty it was to return the empire to peace, and recreate stability and justice where barbarian hordes had destroyed it. Diocletian's Palace ( Dioklecijanova palača in Croatian) is a building in Split in Croatia that was built by the emperor Diocletian Salona was an ancient Illyrian Delmati city in the first millennium BC. Split (Spalatum Ancient Greek: Aspálathos, Ασπάλαθος Spalato is the largest and most important Dalmatian city the second-largest Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between ^[180] He arrogated, regimented and centralized political authority on a massive scale. In his policies, he enforced an imperial system of values on a diverse and sometimes unwilling provincial audience. ^[181] In the imperial propaganda from the period, recent history is perverted and minimized in the service of the theme of the Tetrarchs as "restorers". Aurelian's achievements are ignored, the revolt of Carausius is backdated to the reign of Gallienus, and it is implied that the Tetrarchs engineered Aurelian's defeat of the Palmyrenes; the period between Gallienus and Diocletian is effectively erased. The Palmyrene Empire ( 260 &ndash 273) was a splinter empire that broke off the Roman Empire during the Crisis of the Third Century. The history of the empire before the Tetrarchy is portrayed as a time of civil war, savage despotism, and imperial collapse. ^[182] In those inscriptions that bear their names, Diocletian and his companions are referred to as "restorers of the whole world",^[183] men who succeeded in "defeating the nations of the barbarians, and confirming the tranquility of their world". ^[184] Diocletian was written up as the "founder of eternal peace". ^[185] The theme of restoration was conjoined to an emphasis on the uniqueness and accomplishments of the Tetrarchs themselves. ^[182]

The cities where emperors lived frequently in this period—Milan, Trier, Arles, Sirmium, Serdica, Thessaloniki, Nicomedia, and Antioch—were treated as alternate imperial seats, to the exclusion of Rome and its senatorial elite. Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. Arles (aʁl̥ Provençal Occitan: Arles in both classical and Mistralian norms is a City in the south of France, The history of Sofia, Bulgaria 's capital and largest city spans thousands of years from Antiquity to modern times in which the city has always been a Thessaloniki (Θεσσαλονίκη), Thessalonica, or Salonica is the second-largest city in Greece and the capital of Macedonia Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also ^[186] A new style of ceremony was developed, emphasizing the distinction of the emperor from all other persons. The quasi-republican ideals of Augustus' primus inter pares were abandoned for all but the Tetrarchs themselves. Primus inter pares ( Latin) or First among equals is a phrase which indicates that a person is the most senior of a group of people Diocletian took to wearing a gold crown and jewels, and forbade the use of purple cloth to all but the emperors. ^[187] His subjects were required to prostrate themselves in his presence (adoratio); the most fortunate were allowed the privilege of kissing the hem of his robe (proskynesis, προσκύνησις). Proskynesis, ( Greek) formed from the Ancient Greek words pros and kuneo literally means "kissing towards" and refers ^[188] Circuses and basilicas were designed with to keep the face of the emperor perpetually in view, and always in a seat of authority. The emperor became a figure of transcendent authority, a man beyond the grip of the masses. ^[189] His every appearance was stage-managed. ^[190] This style of presentation was not new—many of its elements were first seen in the reigns of Aurelian and Severus—but it was only under the Tetrarchs that it was refined and made into an explicit system. ^[191]

Administrative

In keeping with his move from an ideology of republicanism to one of autocracy, Diocletian's council of advisers, his consilium, differed from those of earlier emperors. He destroyed the Augustan illusion of imperial government as a cooperative affair between emperor, army, and Senate. ^[192] In its place he established an effectively autocratic structure, a shift later epitomized in the institution's name: it would become a consistorium ("consistory"), not a council. Antiquity Originally the Latin word consistorium meant simply 'sitting together' just as the Greek syn(hedrion (of which the Biblical Sanhedrin Diocletian regulated his court by distinguishing separate departments (scrina) for different tasks. ^[193] From this structure came the offices of different magistri, like the Magister officiorum ("Master of offices"), and associated secretariats. These were men suited to dealing with petitions, requests, correspondence, legal affairs, and foreign embassies. Within his court Diocletian maintained a permanent body of legal advisers, men with significant influence on his re-ordering of juridical affairs. There were also two finance ministers, dealing with the separate bodies of the public treasury and the private domains of the emperor, and the praetorian prefect, the most significant person of the whole. Diocletian's reduction of the Praetorian Guards to the level of a simple city garrison for Rome lessened the civil powers of the office, but the office retained great power. The prefect kept a staff of hundreds and managed affairs in all segments of government: in taxation, administration, jurisprudence, and minor military commands, the praetorian prefect was often second only to the emperor himself. ^[194] It has been estimated that under Diocletian the number of men in the civil service doubled from 15,000 men to 30,000 men. See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis ^[195]

For a more efficient collection of taxes and supplies, and to ease the enforcement of the law, Diocletian doubled the number of provinces from fifty to almost one hundred. In Ancient Rome, a province (Latin provincia, pl provinciae) was the basic and until the Tetrarchy (circa The provinces were grouped into twelve dioceses, each governed by an appointed official called a vicarius, or "deputy of the praetorian prefects". A Roman or civil diocese ( Latin: dioecesis, from the διοίκησις, "administration" was one of the administrative divisions Vicarius is a Latin word meaning substitute or deputy. It is the root and origin of the English word " Vicar " and Cognate to the Persian ^[196] Some of the provincial divisions required revision, and were modified either soon after 293 or early in the fourth century. ^[197] The dissemination of imperial law to the provinces was facilitated under Diocletian's reign, because Diocletian's reform of the empire's provincial structure meant that there were now a greater number of governors ruling over smaller regions and smaller populations. ^[198] Diocletian's reforms shifted the governors' main function to that of the presiding official in the lower courts:^[199] whereas in the early empire military and judicial functions were the function of governor, and procurators had supervised taxation; under the new system vicarii and governors were responsible for justice and taxation, and a new class of duces ("dukes"), acting independently of the civil service, had military command. A promagistrate is a person who acts in and with the authority and capacity of a magistrate, but without holding a magisterial office Dux (plural duces) is Latin for leader (from the verb ducere, 'to lead' and could refer to anyone who commanded troops such A duke is a member of the Nobility, historically of highest rank below the Sovereign, and historically controlled a Duchy or a Dukedom These dukes sometimes administered two or three of the new provinces created by Diocletian, and had forces ranging from two thousand to more than twenty thousand men. ^[200]

Legal

A 1581 reprint of the Digestorum from Justinian's Corpus Juris Civilis (527–534). Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 The Corpus drew on the codices of Gregorius and Hermogenianus, drafted and published under Diocletian's reign.

As with most emperors, much of Diocletian's daily routine rotated around legal affairs, responding to appeals and petitions, and delivering decisions. Rescripts, authoritative interpretations issued by the emperor in response to demands from disputants in both public and private cases, were a common duty of second- and third-century emperors. Diocletian was awash in paperwork, and was nearly incapable of delegating his duties. It would have been seen as a dereliction of duty to ignore them. Diocletian's praetorian prefects—Afranius Hannibalianus, Julius Asclepiodotus, and Flavius Constantius—aided in regulating the flow and presentation of such paperwork, but the deep legalism of Roman culture kept the workload heavy. ^[201] Emperors in the forty years preceding Diocletian's reign had not managed these duties so effectively, and their output in attested rescripts is low. Diocletian, by contrast, was prodigious in his affairs: there are over 1,000 rescripts in his name still surviving, and these represent only a small portion of the total issue. ^[202]

Under the governance of the jurists Gregorius, Aurelius Arcadius Charisius, and Hermogenianus, the imperial government began issuing official books of precedent, collecting and listing all the rescripts that had been issued from the reign of Hadrian (r. JURIST is an online legal news service hosted by the University of Pittsburgh School of Law, written by founder Professor Bernard Hibbitts and a staff of more than In Common law legal systems, a precedent or authority is a Legal case establishing a principle or rule that a Court or other judicial Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after 117–138) to the reign of Diocletian. ^[203] The Codex Gregorianus includes rescripts up to 292, which the Codex Hermogenianus updated with a comprehensive collection of rescripts issued by Diocletian in 293 and 294. ^[197] The jurists themselves were generally conservative, and constantly looked to past Roman practice and theory for guidance. ^[204] They were probably given a looser administrative structure than that imposed on the later compilers of the Codex Theodosianus (438) and Codex Justinianus (529). The Codex Theodosianus ( Book of Theodosius) was a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312 The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 Their work lacked the rigid structuring of those later codes,^[205] and was not published in the name of the emperor, but in the names of its compilers. ^[206] The compilers' codifications were radical in the decentralized Roman legal system. ^[207] There is a sharp increase in the number of edicts and rescripts produced under Diocletian's rule, a fact that has been read as evidence of the Diocletian's thoroughgoing effort to realign society on terms established by the imperial center. ^[208]

After Diocletian's reform of the provinces, governors were often referred to by the name iudex, or judge. A judge, or justice, is an Official who presides over a Court of law The governor became responsible for his decisions first to his immediate superiors, as well as to the more distant office of the emperor. ^[209] It was most likely at this time that judicial records became verbatim accounts of what was said in trial, making it easier to determine bias or improper conduct on the part of the governor. With these records and the empire's universal right of appeal, imperial authorities probably had a great deal of power to enforce behavior standards for their judges. In Law, an appeal is a process for requesting a formal change to an official decision ^[210] In spite of Diocletian's attempts at reform, the provincial restructuring was far from clear, especially when citizens appealed the decisions of their governors. Proconsuls, for example, were often both judges of first instance and appeal, and the governors of some provinces took appellant cases from their neighbors. It soon became impossible to avoid taking some cases to the emperor for arbitration and judgment. ^[211]

Military

It is archaeologically difficult to distinguish Diocletian's fortifications from those of his successors and predecessors. The Devil's Dyke, for example, Danubian earthworks traditionally attributed to Diocletian, cannot even be securely dated to a particular century. The most that can be said about built structures under Diocletian's reign is that he rebuilt forts along the Rhine-Iller-Danube line, in Egypt, and on the frontier with Persia. İller means provinces in Turkish see Provinces of Turkey The Iller (ancient name Ilargus) is a river in Bavaria, Beyond that, much discussion is speculative, and reliant on the broad generalizations of written sources. Diocletian and the Tetrarchs had no consistent plan for frontier advancement, and records of raids and forts built across the frontier are likely to indicate only temporary claims. The Strata Diocletiana along the eastern frontier is the classic Diocletianic frontier system, consisting of an outer road followed by tightly spaced forts followed by further fortifications in the rear. ^[212]

Lactantius criticized Diocletian for an excessive increase in troop sizes, declaring that "each of the four [Tetrarchs] strove to have a far larger number of troops than previous emperors had when they were governing the state alone". ^[213] The fifth-century pagan Zosimus, by contrast, praised Diocletian for keeping troops on the borders, rather than keeping them in the cities, as Constantine was held to have done. Zosimus ( ''fl'' 490s-510s was a Byzantine historian who lived in Constantinople during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius ^[214] Both these views had some truth to them, despite the biases of their authors: Diocletian and the Tetrarchs did greatly expand the army, and the growth was mostly in frontier regions, although it is difficult to establish the precise details of these shifts given the weakness of the sources. ^[215] The army expanded to about 581,000 men from a 285 strength of 390,000 men. The growth was smaller in the East, which only expanded from 253,000 men to 311,000 men, most of whom manned the Persian frontier. The navy's forces increased from approximately 46,000 men to approximately 64,000 men. ^[216]

Diocletian's increases in the size of the civil service and the military forces of his empire meant that the empire's tax burden would also increase, especially given how the military was the largest burden on the imperial budget. ^[217] The proportion of the adult male population serving in the army increased from roughly 1 in 25 to 1 in 15, an increase judged excessive by some modern commentators. Official troop allowances were kept to low levels, and the mass of troops often resorted to extortion or the taking of civilian jobs. ^[218] Arrears became the norm for most troops. Many were even given payment in kind in place of their salaries. ^[219] Were he unable to pay for his enlarged army, there would likely be civil conflict, potentially open revolt. Diocletian was led to devise a new system of taxation. ^[218]

Economic

Taxation

Diocletian introduced an extensive new tax system based on heads (capita) and land (iuga) and tied to a new, regular census of the empire's population and wealth. Census officials traveled throughout the empire, assessed the value of labor and land for each landowner, and joined the landowners' totals together to make city-wide totals of capita and iuga. ^[220] The iugum was not a consistent measure of land, but varied according to the type of land and crop, and the amount of labor necessary for sustenance. The caput was not consistent either: women, for instance, were often valued at half a caput, and sometimes at other values. ^[219] The city would provide animals, money, and manpower in proportion to its capita, and grain in proportion to its iuga. ^[220]

Most taxes were due on each September 1, and levied from individual landowners by decuriones (decurions). Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. A decurion was a member of a city senate in the Roman Empire. These decurions, analogous to city councilors, were responsible for paying from their own pocket what they failed to collect from the populace. ^[221] Diocletian's reforms also increased the number of financial officials in the provinces: more rationales and magistri privatae are attested under Diocletian's reign than before. These offices were to manage imperial properties and to supervise the collection of revenue. ^[197] Despite the instability of the coinage, most taxes were either levied in or convertible into money. Rates shifted to take inflation into account. ^[220] In 296, Diocletian issued an edict reforming census procedures. This edict introduced a general five-year census for the whole empire, replacing prior censuses that had operated at different speeds throughout the empire. The new censuses would keep up with changes in the values of capita and iuga. ^[222] In the interests of securing a generally egalitarian tax system, Italy, which had long been exempt from taxes, was exempt no longer. Save for the city of Rome and a region extending one hundred miles in every direction from the city center (the Suburbicarian dioceses), Italy would now be taxed on the same level as any other province. The seven suburbicarian dioceses are Roman Catholic Dioceses located in the Suburbs that surround Rome, reserved for the highest order of ^[223]

Diocletian's edicts emphasize the common liability of all taxpayers. Public records of all taxes were established to enhance the transparency of the operation, so that taxpayers would know exactly how much their neighbors paid. ^[224] The position of decurion had long been an honor sought by wealthy aristocrats, but under Diocletian its tax-collecting requirements became much more rigorous. Decurions and the city treasury could be bankrupted if production figures fell. ^[221] The effects of the new tax system were deeply felt: boundary-markers (necessary for tax administration) dating from the Tetrarchic period make relatively frequent appearances in Near-Eastern towns, even in remote country districts like Sakkaia in the northern Hauran. Hauran, also Hawran or Houran, ( حوران, is the southwestern region of modern-day Syria, it extends to the far northwestern region of modern-day ^[225] The Roman populace, long accustomed to irregular and ineffective tax collection, went through an uncomfortable period of adjustment to Diocletian's reforms. But even the lower classes were able to pay this burden. ^[226] The common benefits of the new system were clear: taxes were predictable, regular, and fair, and the population was now free from fear. Citizens of the fourth century, safe behind the frontiers established and paid for by their taxes, no longer had to fear foreign occupation. ^[227]

Currency and inflation

A fragment of the Edict on Maximum Prices (301), on display in Berlin

By the early 280s, market forces had created a stable exchange rate between gold and the copper antoninianus, more or less stablizing commodity prices. The Edict on Maximum Prices (also known as the Edict on Prices or the Edict of Diocletian; in Latin Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. The antoninianus was a Coin used during the Roman Empire thought to have been valued at 2 denarii. The antoninianus, which had become the standard medium of exchange, was valued at one sixty-thousandth the value of a pound of gold. ^[228] But inflation remained a serious issue. ^[229] In the wake of a brief period of re-inflation, Diocletian began a more comprehensive reform of the currency in 293. ^[228] The new system consisted of five coins: the aureus/solidus, a gold coin weighing, like its predecessors, one-sixtieth of a pound; the argenteus, a coin weighing one ninety-sixth of a pound and containing ninety-five percent pure silver; the follis, sometimes referred to as the laureatus A, which is a copper coin with added silver struck at the rate of thirty-two to the pound; the radiatus, a small copper coin struck at the rate of 108 to the pound, with no added silver; and a coin known today as the laureatus B, a smaller copper coin struck at the rate of 192 to the pound. The argenteus was a Silver Coin produced by the Roman Empire from the time of Diocletian 's coinage reform in 294 AD to ca Roman coin The follis (plural folles) was a large Bronze Coin introduced in about 294 (actual name of this coin is unknown ^[230] The denarius was dropped from the imperial mints,^[229] though the values of new coins continued to be measured in reference to it. The Roman Currency system included the denarius (plural denarii) after 211 BC a small Silver coin, ^[228]

By 301, however, the system was in trouble, strained by a new bout of inflation. Diocletian therefore issued his Edict on Coinage, an act re-tariffing all debts so that the nummii, the most common coin in circulation, would be worth half as much. ^[231] In the edict, preserved in an inscription from the city of Aphrodisias in Caria (near Geyre, Turkey), it was declared that all debts contracted before September 1, 301 would be repaid at the old standards, while all debts contracted after September 1 would be repaid at the new standards. Municipalities of Caria Cramer's detailed catalog of Carian towns in Classical Greece is based entirely on ancient sources Geyre is the ruins of the ancient city Aphrodisias in the province of Aydın. Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. For the article see Article 301 (Turkish penal code. Events By Place Roman Empire Emperor Diocletian issues his ^[232] It appears that the edict was made in an attempt to preserve the current price of gold and to keep the empire's coinage on silver, Rome's traditional metal currency. ^[233]

The Edict on Maximum Prices (Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium in Latin) was issued two to three months after the coinage edict,^[229] somewhere between November 20 and December 10, 301. The Edict on Maximum Prices (also known as the Edict on Prices or the Edict of Diocletian; in Latin Edictum De Pretiis Rerum Venalium Events 284 - Diocletian was chosen as Roman Emperor. 762 - Bögü Khan of the Uyghurs, Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V For the article see Article 301 (Turkish penal code. Events By Place Roman Empire Emperor Diocletian issues his ^[232] It survives in many different versions, written on wood, papyrus, and stone. ^[234] It is the best-preserved Latin inscription surviving from the Greek East. ^[235] In the edict, Diocletian declared that the current pricing crisis resulted from the unchecked greed of merchants, and had resulted in turmoil for the mass of common citizens. The language of the edict calls on the people's memory of their benevolent leaders, and exhorts them to enforce the provisions of the edict, and thereby restore perfection to the world. The edict goes on to list in detail over one thousand goods and accompanying retail prices not to be exceeded. Penalties are laid out for various pricing transgressions. ^[236]

In the most basic terms, the edict was ignorant of the law of supply and demand; it ignored the fact that prices might vary from region to region, or according to product availability, and it ignored the impact of transportation costs in the retail pricing of goods. Supply and demand is an Economic model describing effects on price and quantity in a Market. In the judgment of the historian David Potter, the edict was "an act of economic lunacy". ^[237] The edict's penalties were applied unevenly across the empire, widely resisted, and eventually dropped, perhaps within a year of the edict's issue. ^[238] Lactantius has written of the perverse accompaniments to the edict; of goods withdrawn from the market, of brawls over minute variations in price, of the deaths that came when its provisions were enforced. His account may be true, but it seems to modern historians exaggerated and hyperbolic,^[239] and the impact of the law is recorded in no other ancient source. ^[240]

Legacy

The historian A.H.M. Jones observed that "It is perhaps Diocletian's greatest achievement that he reigned twenty-one years and then abdicated voluntarily, and spent the remaining years of his life in peaceful retirement. Arnold Hugh Martin ( AHM) Jones ( 9 March 1904 - 9 April 1970) was a prominent 20th century British historian of "^[241] Diocletian was one of the few emperors of the third and fourth centuries to die naturally, and the first in the history of the empire to retire voluntarily. ^[242] Once he retired, however, his Tetrarchic system collapsed. Without the guiding hand of Diocletian, the empire frequently broke into civil war. Only in 324, when Constantine alone emerged triumphant, did stability return. ^[243] Under the Christian Constantine, all of Diocletian's achievements were repudiated. Constantine's rule, however, validated Diocletian's achievements and the autocratic principle he represented:^[244] the borders remained secure, in spite of Constantine's large expenditure of forces during his civil wars; the bureaucratic transformation of Roman government was completed; and Constantine made Diocletian's court ceremonies even more extravagant. ^[245]

Constantine abandoned Diocletian's aim of preserving a stable silver coinage, and minted instead a new gold solidus. ^[246] Diocletian's paganism was repudiated in favor of an imperially sponsored Christianity; his attempts at controlling prices ignored. But even Christianity became tied to the state structure of the Roman Empire in an autocratic way; Constantine claimed for himself the same close relationship with the Christian God as Diocletian had claimed with Jupiter. ^[247] Most importantly, Diocletian's tax system was preserved and tightened. ^[248] Aided by the new state machinery introduced by Diocletian, the Byzantine Empire would last for over one thousand years after his death. ^[249]

Notes

References

Primary sources

• Aurelius Victor "Epitome de Caesaribus"
• Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History Book IX
• Lactantius, "On the Deaths of the Persecutors"
• Joannes Zonaras Compendium of History Compendium extract: Diocletian to the Death of Galerius: 284-311

See also

• 20,000 Martyrs of Nicomedia
• Dioclesian, Henry Purcell's 1690 tragicomic semi-opera, loosely based on the life of the historical Diocletian

External links

• Diocletian from the Catholic Encyclopedia. Sextus Aurelius Victor (ca 320-ca 390 was an historian and politician of the Roman Empire. For the Byzantine officer see also Eutropius (Byzantine official (396-397 Lucius Caelius (or Caecilius? Firmianus Lactantius was an Early Christian author (ca Joannes (John Zonaras ( Greek:; ''fl'' 12th century was a Byzantine chronicler and theologian, who lived at Constantinople. The 20000 Martyrs of Nicomedia died during the rule of Emperors Diocletian and Maximian in the early fourth century Dioclesian (The Prophetess or The History of Dioclesian) is a tragicomic Semi-opera in five acts by Henry Purcell to a Libretto Henry Purcell (ˈpɜrsəl 10 September 1659 (? – 21 November 1695 was an English Baroque Composer. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia
• 12 Byzantine Rulers, by Lars Brownworth. Lars Brownworth, a former United States history and political science teacher at the Stony Brook School, is the creator of the top 50 podcast 12 Byzantine Rulers The History 15 minute audio lecture on Diocletian.
• Ruins of the Palace of the Emperor Diocletian at Spalatro in Dalmatia By Robert Adam, 1764. Plates made available by the University of Wisconsin Digital Collections Center. (N. B. "Spalatro" was a less used alternative form of "Spalato", the Italian name for Croatian "Split").