A dhimmi ([ðimi]; Arabic: ذمي‎, collectively: أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection, Ottoman Turkish zimmi) is a non-Muslim subject of a state governed in accordance with sharia law. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Ottoman Turkish (Osmanlıca or tr ''Osmanlı Türkçesi'' Ottoman Turkish ota-Latn ''lisân-ı Osmânî'' is the variety of the Turkish language that was used as the A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The term connotes an obligation of the state to protect the individual, including the individual's life, property, and freedom of religion and worship, and required loyalty to the empire,^[1] and a poll tax known as the jizya. A poll tax, head tax, or capitation is a Tax of a uniform fixed amount per individual (as opposed to a percentage of income Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic

This status was originally only made available to non-Muslims who were People of the Book (i. This article is about the theological concept in Islam. For the novel by Geraldine Brooks see People of the Book (novel. e. Jews and Christians), but was later extended to include Sikhs, Zoroastrians, Mandeans, and, in some areas, Hindus^[2] and Buddhists. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Mandaeism or Mandaeanism ( Mandaic: Mandaiuta, مندائية Mandā'iyya) is a Monotheistic Religion with a strongly A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical A number of noted individuals have been Buddhists. Historical Buddhist thinkers and founders of schools Individuals are grouped by nationality except in cases where the ^[3][4] Dhimmi had fewer legal and social rights than Muslims, but more rights than other non-Muslim religious subjects. ^[5] This status applied to millions of people living from the Atlantic Ocean to India from the 7th century until modern times. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. ^[6] Over time, many dhimmis converted to Islam. Most conversions were voluntary. ^[7][8] Forced conversion played a role in some later periods of Islamic history, mostly in the 12th century under the Almohad dynasty of North Africa and al-Andalus. The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or ^[7][9]

Meaning

The word dhimmi (plural dimam) literally means "protection, care, custody, covenant of protection, compact; responsibility, answerableness; financial obligation, liability, debt; inviolability, security of life and property; safeguard, guarantee, security; conscience" and ahl-dhimmi is "the free non-Muslim subjects living in Muslim countries who, in return for paying the capital tax, enjoyed protection and safety. "^[10]

Treatment of Dhimmis

Dhimmis were allowed to "practice their religion, subject to certain conditions, and to enjoy a measure of communal autonomy" and guaranteed their personal safety and security of property, in return for paying tribute and acknowledging Muslim supremacy. This article lists various controversies related to Islam and Muslims. Arguments critical to religion in general or specific to monotheism such as the Existence of God, are not dealt with here Criticism of Muhammad has existed since the 7th century when Muhammad was attacked by his non-Muslim Arab contemporaries for preaching Monotheism, Muslims believe that the Qur'an is the literal word of God as recited to Muhammad through the angel Gabriel. See also Islamism This article is about criticism of the Islamic political and religious movement known as Islamism Criticism of Islamism Eurabia is a political Neologism used to refer to a Europe which allies itself to and becomes subsumed by the Arab World. See also Islam and Judaism Islam and antisemitism looks at the teaching of Islam relating to Jews and Judaism and the attitudes of the The relationship between Islam and domestic violence is disputed Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only Islamophobia is a Neologism that refers to Prejudice or Discrimination against Islam or Muslims The term itself dates back to the Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. Persecution of Muslims refers to the Religious persecution inflicted upon Muslims Persecution may refer to beating torture confiscation or destruction Qutbism (also Kotebism Qutbiyya or Qutbiyyah is the radical strain of Islamist ideology and activism based on the thought and writings of Sayyid Qutb, an Islamist The Satanic Verses controversy refers to the controversy surrounding Salman Rushdie 's novel The Satanic Ayaan Hirsi Ali ( Ayaan Xirsi Cali; born Ayaan Hirsi Magan 13 November 1969 in Mogadishu, Somalia) is a Dutch Irshad Manji (born 1968 is a Canadian Feminist, Author, journalist, activist and professor of leadership Daniel Pipes (born September 9 1949 is a American historian and political commentator who particularly focuses on the Middle East and Islam. Ibn Warraq (born 1946 is the Pen name of a Secularist author of Pakistani origin and founder of the Institute for the Secularisation of Islamic Society Philippe de Villiers (born Viscount Philippe Le Jolis de Villiers de Saintignon on March 25, 1949) was the Mouvement pour la France Geert Wilders ('xert 'ʋildərs 'ʋildəʁs}} born 6 September 1963) is a Dutch Politician. Robert Bruce Spencer (born 1962 is an American author who writes articles and books relating to Islam and Islamic terrorism. Theo van Gogh (ˈteːjoː vɑnˈxɔx ( July 23, 1957 – November 2, 2004) was a Dutch Film director, Television producer Afshin Ellian (born 27 February, 1966 in Tehran, Iran) is a Dutch professor of law, Philosopher, and Poet Not to be confused with the pseudonym of L Frank Baum Hugh Fitzgerald is the vice-president of Jihad Watch. Susanne Winter is a lawyer and politician for the right-wing Freedom Party of Austria in the southern Austrian city of Graz. Moazzam Begg (born 1968 is one of nine British Muslims who were held in Extrajudicial detention in the Guantanamo Bay detainment camp, in Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations is the name used in English to refer to (أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن born 10 March The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U The Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp is a controversial United States Detention center operated by Joint Task Force Guantanamo since 2002 in Guantanamo March 11, 2002 Mecca girl's schools fire killed at least fourteen students but was especially notable for complaints made that Saudi Arabia's religious police stopped The Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, the Occupation of Iraq, or the War in Iraq, is an ongoing Military campaign The Qur'an desecration controversy of 2005 began when Newsweek's April 30 issue contained a report about U On October 30, 2005, Theresia Morangke (15 Alfita Poliwo (17 and Yarni Sambue (17 were beheaded by militants in the Poso region on the Indonesian island Fox News Channel journalists Olaf Wiig, a New Zealander Photojournalist, and Steve Centanni, an American reporter Beginning in 2004 accounts of Abuse, Torture, Sodomy and Homicide of Prisoners held in the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq The Egyptian identification card controversy resulted from a ruling of the Supreme Administrative Council of Egypt on December 16, 2006 against the The Flying Imams controversy (sometimes humorously referred to as sheiks on a plane, a reference to the movie Snakes on a Plane) is a controversy concerning The In mid-June 2007 Salman Rushdie, British - Indian novelist and author of controversial novel The Satanic Verses, was bestowed the honour of being The Pope Benedict XVI Islam controversy arose from a lecture delivered on 12 September 2006 by Pope Benedict XVI at the University of Regensburg The Lars Vilks Muhammad drawings controversy began in July 2007 with a series of Drawings by Swedish artist Lars Vilks which depicted the Fitna is a 2008 short film by Dutch parliamentarian Geert Wilders. ^[11] Taxation from the perspective of dhimmis who came under the Muslim rule, was "a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes"^[12] (but now lower under the Muslim rule^[13][14][15]) and from the point of view of the Muslim conqueror was a material proof of the dhimmi's subjection. ^[12] Various restrictions and legal disabilities were placed on Dhimmis, such as prohibitions against bearing arms or giving testimony in courts in cases involving Muslims. ^[16] Most of these disabilities had a social and symbolic rather than a tangible and practical character. ^[17] Although persecution in the form of violent and active repression was rare and atypical,^[18], the limitations on the rights of dhimmis made them vulnerable to the whims of rulers and the violence of mobs^[19].

While recognizing the inferior status of dhimmis under Islamic rule, Bernard Lewis states that in most respects their position "was very much easier than that of non-Christians or even of heretical Christians in medieval Europe. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American "^[20] For example, dhimmis rarely faced martyrdom or exile, or forced compulsion to change their religion, and with certain exceptions they were free in their choice of residence and profession. ^[21] And in general, the Muslim attitude toward dhimmis was one of contempt instead of hate, fear, or envy, and was rarely expressed in ethnic or racial terms. ^[22]

Development of the dhimma in the early Islamic period

Peace terms

As the early Muslims expanded their territory through conquest, they imposed terms of surrender upon some of the defeated peoples. Courbage and Fargues write:

Before launching an attack he (Muhammed) would offer them three choices — conversion, payment of a tribute, or to fight by the sword. If they did not choose conversion a treaty was concluded, either instead of battle or after it, which established the conditions of surrender for the Christians and Jews — the only non-Muslims allowed to retain their religion at this time. The terms of these treaties were similar and imposed on the dhimmi, the people ‘protected’ by Islam, certain obligations. ^[23]

A classic precedent of the dhimma was an agreement between Muhammad and the Jews of Khaybar, an oasis near Medina. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics The Battle of Khaybar was fought in the year 629 between Muhammad and his followers against the Jews living in the oasis of Khaybar, located 150 kilometers Medina mɛˈdiːnə (المدينة المنورة ælmæˈdiːnæl muˈnɑwːɑrɑ or المدينة ælmæˈdiːnæ also transliterated into English as Khaybar was the first territory attacked and conquered by the Muslim state ruled by Muhammad himself. When the Jews of Khaybar surrendered to Muhammad after a siege, Muhammad allowed them to remain in Khaybar in return for handing over to the Muslims one half of their annual produce. The Khaybar case served as a precedent for later Islamic scholars in their discussions on the issue of dhimma, even though the second caliph Umar I subsequently expelled the Jews from the oasis. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Umar (a=عمر بن الخطاب|t=`Umar ibn al-Khattāb c 581-83 CE &ndash 7 November, 644) also known as Umar the Great or Omar the Great ^[24]

Byzantine precedents

In the 9th century, the Muslim historian Baladhuri drew parallels between the dhimma and Byzantine legislation, writing that Jews had been the dhimmis of Christians. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ahmad Ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri Arabic (أحمد بن يحيى بن جابر البلاذري ^[25] Modern historians also agree that laws relating to Jews and non-Melkite Christians in the Byzantine Empire and those applying to Jews and Christians in the Sassanid Persian Empire were used as sources of dhimmi regulations, although Islamic jurists never explicitly acknowledge these sources. The term Melkite (also written Melchite) is used to refer to various Christian churches and their members originating in the Middle East. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia A Faqih (plural Fuqaha') (فقيه pl فقهاء is an expert in Fiqh, or Islamic Jurisprudence. ^[26] Numerous provisions of the Theodosian Code of 438 and the Justinian's Code of 529 appear to have migrated into Islamic law virtually unchanged. The Codex Theodosianus ( Book of Theodosius) was a compilation of the laws of the Roman Empire under the Christian emperors since 312 The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 Under Byzantine rule, Jews were obliged not to pray loudly; their prayers were not to be audible in the nearby church. Building new synagogues (and repairing existing ones) was likewise prohibited, unless the buildings threatened to collapse and a special permission was obtained. Jews were banned from all public offices and the army; they were prohibited from criticizing Christianity, marrying a Christian, or owning a Christian slave. Furthermore, Jews paid distinctive taxes, possibly the precursors of jizya. Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic Such regulations, justified by Hadith — Bat Ye'or states, worsened on specific factors — came to be imposed upon Christians under the dhimma arrangements, after Byzantine lands were occupied by Muslim forces. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic ^[27]

Relevant texts

Qur'anic verses that support religious tolerance

Lewis states that verse "…there is no compulsion in religion…" ^{[Qur'an 2:256]}, has usually been interpreted in the Islamic legal and theological traditions to mean that the followers of other religions should not be forced to adopt Islam. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran He also holds that verse "…To you your religion, to me my religion…"^{[Qur'an 109:6]} has been used as a "proof-text for pluralism and coexistence" and that the verse ^{[Qur'an 2:62]} has served to justify the tolerated position accorded to the followers of Christianity, Judaism, and Sabianism under Muslim rule. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran ^[28]

Qur'anic verse 9:29

The consensus opinion of Muslim scholars justifies the imposition of tribute on non-Muslims who fall under the Muslim rule in terms of Sura 9:29 of the Qur'an. Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several This is a sub-article to At-Tawba. The consensus opinion of Muslim scholars justifies the imposition of tribute on non-Muslims who fall under the Muslim ^[29] The verse reads: "Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold forbidden that which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued [Arabic: صاغرون 'saghiroon']. Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic " ^{[Qur'an 9:29]}. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran ^[30].

The Arabic word saghiroon, appearing at the end of verse ^{[Qur'an 9:29]},^[31][32], was used to justify the imposition of tribute on non-Muslims who fell under the Muslim rule. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran ^[29] The verse is translated slightly differently in three common English-language translations: (^{[Qur'an 9:29]})

Wehr states translates the word sāghir as "low, lowly, despised, contemptible; humbled, meek, dejected; submissive, servile; subject. "^[33]

Claude Cahen states that the word sāghirūn apparently must be interpreted to show acceptance of the "subject of Islam or, more accurately, as a member of an inferior social class" confirmed through the payment of Jizya "rather than as implying the necessity for a humiliating procedure, which later rigorists claimed to find in it. Claude Cahen (1909 - 1991 was a French Orientalist. He specialized in the studies of the Islamic Middle Ages, Muslim sources about the " Cahen supports his claim through connecion "with the well-known instances of notables or Arabs refusing, although Christians, to pay the Jizya. "^[34]

Hadith

The following principle was established in the form of Muhammad's saying: He who wrongs a Jew or a Christian will have myself as his accuser on the day of judgment. ^[35] Bernard Lewis cites a hadith "One who kills a man under covenant will not even smell the fragrance of Paradise", as a foundation for the protection of the People of the Book in Muslim-ruled countries, but his view is that the position of dhimmis was in general insecure. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic This article is about the theological concept in Islam. For the novel by Geraldine Brooks see People of the Book (novel. ^[36] Majid Khadduri cites a similar hadith in regard to the status of the Dhimmis: Whoever wrongs one with whom a compact has been made [i. Majid Khadduri ( September 27 1909 &ndash January 25, 2007) was an Iraqi ��born founder of the Paul H e. , a dhimmi] and lays on him a burden beyond his strength, I will be his accuser. ^[37]

Pact of Umar

The supposed Pact of Umar between caliph Umar I and the conquered Christians was another source of regulations pertaining to dhimmis. According to Islamic tradition the Pact (Covenant of Umar (c 717 A The document enumerates the obligations and restrictions that the Christians purportedly proposed to the Muslim conquerors as conditions of surrender. ^[38] However, Western orientalists doubt the authenticity of the Pact, arguing that it is usually the victors, not the vanquished, who propose, or rather impose, the terms of peace, and that it is highly unlikely that the people who spoke no Arabic and knew nothing of Islam could draft such a document. Orientalism refers to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers designers and artists and can also refer to a sympathetic stance Academic historians believe that the Pact of Umar in the form it is known today was a product of later jurists who attributed it to the venerated caliph Umar I in order to lend greater authority to their own opinions. The striking similarities between the Pact of Umar and the Theodesian and Justinian Codes suggest that perhaps much of the Pact of Umar was borrowed from these earlier codes by later Islamic jurists. According to Islamic tradition the Pact (Covenant of Umar (c 717 A The Corpus Juris Civilis ("Body of Civil Law" is the modern name for a collection of fundamental works in Jurisprudence, issued from 529 At least some of the clauses of the pact mirror the measures first introduced by the Umayyad caliph Umar II or by the early Abbasid caliphs. ^[39]

Interpretations by jurists and commentators

Sunni Muslims tend to follow the opinion of the 7th and 8th century scholars Hanbali, Hanafi, Maliki and Shafi, in contrast to Shias who believe that only a living scholar must be followed. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Hanbali ( حنبلى) is one of the four schools ( Madhhabs of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (the other three being The Hanafi ( Arabic حنفي school is the oldest of the four schools of thought ( Madhhabs The Maliki Madhhab ( Arabic مالكي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within ^[40].

The jurists of the 7th and 8th centuries CE took a relatively humane and practical attitude towards dhimmis compared to the 11th century commentators writing when Islam was under threat both at home and abroad. The 7th century is the period from 601 to 700 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. ^[41]

While al-Zamakhshari, an 11th-century commentator, gives a very humiliating procedure of exacting jizya (See the Humiliation section below for a list of quotes), the 8th-century jurist Abu Ubayd, author of a classical treatise on taxation, insists that dhimmis must not be burdened beyond their capacity or caused to suffer. Abu al-Qasim Mahmud ibn Umar al-Zamakhshari also called Jar Allah ( Arabic for "God's neighbour" and known widely as al-Zamakhshari (1074 or 1075 A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish The great jurist Abu Yusuf, also of the 8th century, also rules against a humiliating procedure of exacting jizya. Yaqub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari better known as Abu Yusuf (أبو يوسف (d He states: "No-one of the people of dhimma should be beaten in order to exact payment of the jizya (Taxation), nor made to stand in the hot sun, nor should hateful things inflicted upon their bodies, or anything of that sort. . Rather they should be treated with leniency. " Abu Yusuf however insisted that the specified tax must be exacted from Dhimmis and prescribed imprisoning for those who do not pay the tax completely. ^[42]

Yaqub Jafari, a Shia scholar, in Tafsir Kosar states that saghiroon is understood in the following ways:^[43]

• Some jurists hold that saghiroon implies that jizya should be collected with humiliation (e. g. dhimmi's should not be told about the exact amount of jizya they have to pay beforehand so that they become worried, although these jurists hold that jizya must not be burdensome for the dhimmis)
• Other jurists such as Sheykh Tousi however hold that saghiroon only implies dhimmis' commitment to the Islamic laws. ^[44]
• Also some have understood sagharoon to imply that the dhimmi should pay jizya standing while the Muslim collector is sitting. ^[45]

Status of dhimmis

Legal and social status

Dhimmis were subject to legal and social inferiority, and discrimination was permanent, necessary, and "inherent in the system and institutionalized in law and practice," due to the fact that Dhimmis were not allowed to testify against a Muslim in court. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Aqidah (sometimes spelled Aqeeda, Aqidah or Aqida) (عقيدة is an Islamic term meaning Creed. Allah ( Arabic: الله, ʔalˤːɑːh) is the standard Arabic word for ' In Islam, God is believed to be the only real supreme being all-powerful and all knowing Creator Sustainer Ordainer and Judge of the universe Islam puts a heavy emphasis IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets The Five Pillars of Islam (Arabic أركان الإسلام is the term given to the five duties incumbent on every Muslim. The Shahada ( Arabic: ar الشهادة, from the verb ar شهد "to testify" is the Islamic Creed. Ṣalāt ( Arabic: صلاة‎, pl ṣalawāt, Qur'anic Arabic: صلوة ṣalawah) (also munz in Pashto and Sawm ( Arabic: صوم is an Arabic word for Fasting regulated by Islamic jurisprudence. This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied The Hajj (حج is a pilgrimage to Mecca (Makkah It is the largest annual pilgrimage in the world Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century Caliph Caliph is the term or title for the Islamic leader of the Ummah, or community of Islam There is much more to Muslim history than its military and political aspects this particular chronology is almost entirely of military and political nature See also Muhammad's wives Ahl al-Bayt ( Arabic:ar أهل البيت is an Arabic phrase literally meaning People of the House, or family In Islam, the Ṣaḥābah (الصحابة "Companions" were the companions of the Islamic prophet Muḥammad. The Rightly Guided Caliphs or The Righteous Caliphs ( ar الخلفاء الراشدون) is a term used in Sunni Islam to refer to the first Imāmah (إمامة is the Shī‘ah doctrine of religious spiritual and political leadership of the Ummah. Qur'an Text Surahs ** Ayah Commentary/Exegesis Tafsir Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Muslim Culture is a term primarily used in Secular Academia to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic peoples The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings This is a sub-article to Religious education, Academic discipline, and Islam. This article is about Animals in Islamic thought The Qur'an assigns an inferior status to animals in comparison with humans and has a tendency towards Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally The Islamic calendar or Muslim calendar ( Arabic: التقويم الهجري at-taqwīm al-hijrī; Persian: تقویم هجری قمری ‎ The topic of Islam and children includes the rights of children in Islam children's duties towards their parents and parent's rights over their children both males and females Listing of Muslims by country Important note Population counts by religious affiliation like most demographic characteristics of a Population Muslim holidays are mostly based around the life of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, especially the events surrounding the first hearing of the Qur'an. A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings See also Modern Islamic philosophy, Islamism, Islamic terrorism Political aspects of Islam are derived from the Quran, the Sunna Over the centuries of Islamic history, Muslim rulers Islamic scholars, and ordinary Muslims have held many different attitudes towards other religions The historical interaction between Christianity and Islam, in the field of Comparative religion, connects fundamental ideas in Christianity with similar ones in Islam Hinduism and Islam, from the of arrival of the Arabs as far back as the eighth century AD has had a checkered history Islam and Jainism came in close contact with each other following the Islamic conquest from Central Asia and Persia in the seventh The historical interaction of Judaism and Islam started in the 7th century CE with the origin and spread of Islam in the Arabian peninsula. In Islam, Muhammad is the last and final Prophet of God Islam views Jews Christians and Muslims as " People of the Book Arguments critical to religion in general or specific to monotheism such as the Existence of God, are not dealt with here Islamophobia is a Neologism that refers to Prejudice or Discrimination against Islam or Muslims The term itself dates back to the The following list consists of Concepts that are derived from both Islamic and Arab tradition which are expressed as words in the Arabic language. Dhimmis were often subject to violence and crimes committed by Muslims; despite strict regulations to keep them on a lower status than that of Muslims, they often managed to secure considerable economic wealth and occasionally (though extremely rarely) some measure of political power. ^[46] Lewis also notes that, although the regulations and restrictions imposed on dhimmis by the many Islamic communities "did not always conform to the high morals and religious principles of Islam," in practice the actual treatment and social realities of the dhimma under Islamic rule were sometimes better than the written regulations would suggest. ^[47]

In his classic treatise on the principles of Islamic governance, the 11th-century Shafi'i scholar Al-Mawardi divided the conditions attached to ‘’dhimma’’ on top of the requirement to pay tribute into compulsory and desirable. The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi, known in Latin as Alboacen (972-1058 CE was an Arab Muslim jurist of the Shafii The compulsory conditions included prohibitions on blasphemy against Islam, entering into sexual relations or marriage with a Muslim woman, proselytizing among Muslims, and assisting the enemies of Islam. The desirable conditions included a requirement to wear distinctive apparel, a prohibition to visibly display religious symbols, wine, or pork, ringing church bells, or loudly praying, a requirement to bury dead bodies unobtrusively, and finally, a prohibition on riding horses or camels, but not donkeys. ^[48] The latter restrictions were largely symbolic in nature and were designed to highlight the inferiority of dhimmis compared to Muslims. ^[49]

Friedmann holds that the principle that "Islam is exalted, and nothing is exalted above it" (as Bukhari puts it) had many practical effects on the relationship between Muslims and unbelievers in Muslim lands. ^[50] According to Lewis, it would have been a theological and logical absurdity for traditional Islamic societies to give the "same treatment to those who follow the true faith and those who willfully reject it. "^[51]

The treatment of dhimmis, including the enforcement of restrictions placed on them, varied over time and space, depending on both the goodwill of the ruler and the historical circumstances. The "dhimma" was the most oppressive in Morocco, where Jews were subjected to what Norman Stillman called “ritualized degradation”,^[52] as well as in Yemen and Persia. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Norman Arthur Stillman, also Noam (נועם in Hebrew b 1945 is the Schusterman-Josey Professor and Chair of Judaic History at the University of Oklahoma Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia ^[53] The periods when Islamic states were strong generally coincided with more relaxed attitude towards dhimmis; however, treatment of non-Muslims usually became harsher when Islam was weak and in decline. ^[36][54] Over time, the treatment of dhimmis tended to develop in cycles, such that periods of when restrictions imposed on dhimmis were relaxed were immediately followed by the periods of pious reaction when such restrictions came to be enforced again. ^[55]

Religious aspects

Conversions to Islam

The spread of the Muslim faith in the first centuries of the Islamic rule was mainly by persuasion and inducement though at times there were attempts at forcible conversions. A forced conversion is the conversion to a Religion or philosophy under duress with the threatened consequence of earthly penalties or harm Many Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians converted to Islam, however there were significant differences among the conversion rate and scale of these three religions. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Most Zoroastrians converted rather rapidly, while the conversion of Christians was gradual. Judaism however on the whole survived throughout Islamic lands. Lewis explains that the reason for rapid conversion of Zoroastrians was the close association of the Zoroastrian priesthood and the structure of power in ancient Iran, and also neither possessing "stimulation of powerful friends abroad by the Christians, nor the bitter skill in survival possessed by the Jews. " For the Christians, the process of Arab settlement, of conversion to Islam and assimiliation into the dominant culture caused their gradual conversion. For many of them, transition from a dominant to a subject status, which involved disadvantages, was too much to endure. In some places, like the Maghreb, Central Asia, and southern Arabia, Christianity died out completely. The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Jews in contrast were more accustomed to adversity. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ For them, the Islamic conquest was just a change of cruel master. They had already learned how to adapt themselves and "endure under the conditions of political, social and economic disability. "^[7] Jewish Encyclopedia reports the high rate of conversion to Islam of informed Jews in the twelfth century. The Jewish Encyclopedia was an Encyclopedia originally published between 1901 and 1906 by Funk and Wagnalls. Kohler and Gottheil in Jewish Encyclopedia agree with Grätz who thinks the reason was 'the degeneracy that had taken hold of Eastern Judaism, manifesting itself in the most superstitious practises,' and also their being 'moved by the wonderful success of the Arabs in becoming a world-power. ' Jewish Encyclopedia also reports outward conversions of Jews to Islam at around the year 1142 in southwestern Europe due to the rise of the Almohades. The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i ^[56]

Freedom of religion and forced conversions

Maimonides (pictured) narrowly escaped death during the massacre of dhimmis in Cordoba

From an Islamic legal perspective, the pledge of protection granted dhimmis the freedom to practice their religion and spared them forced conversions. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Furthermore, the dhimmis were also serving a variety of useful purposes, mostly economic, which was another point of concern to jurists. ^[57] Indeed, in the first several centuries after the Islamic conquest and subsequently in the Ottoman Empire, forcible conversions were rare. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Subsequently, rulers frequently broke the pledge and dhimmis were forced to choose between conversion to Islam and death. Forced conversions occurred mostly in the Maghreb, especially under the Almohads, a militant dynasty with messianic claims, as well as in Persia, where Shi'a Muslims were generally less tolerant than their Sunni counterparts. The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i ^[58]

In the 12th century, rulers of the Almohad dynasty killed or forcibly converted Jews and Christians in Al-Andalus and the Maghreb, putting an end to the existence of Christian communities in North Africa outside Egypt. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[59][60] In an effort to survive under Almohads, most Jews resorted to practicing Islam outwardly, while remaining faithful to Judaism; they openly reverted to Judaism after Almohad persecutions passed. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut ^[61] During the Cordoba massacre of 1148, the Jewish philosopher, theologian, and physician Maimonides saved his own life only by converting to Islam; after Maimonides moved to Egypt, this conversion was ruled void by a Muslim judge who was a friend and patient of Maimonides. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and Qadi (also known as Qazi or Kazi or Kadi) (قاضي is a judge ruling in accordance with the Sharia, Islamic religious law ^[62] As a result of Almohad persecutions and other forced conversions that took place in Morocco afterwards, several Muslim tribes in the Atlas Mountains, as well as many Muslim families in Fez, have Jewish origin. Fes or Fez ( Arabic: فاس, French Fès is the fourth largest City in Morocco, after Casablanca, Rabat ^[60]

Although Lewis claims they were very rare overall, most forced conversions of dhimmis that did happen occurred in Persia. ^[63] In 1656, Shah Abbas I expelled the Jews from Isfahan and compelled them to adopt Islam, although the order was subsequently withdrawn, possibly because of the loss of fiscal revenues. Shah is an Iranian term for a Monarch (leader that has been adopted in many other languages Shāh ‘Abbās I or Shāh ‘Abbās the Great ( (born January 27, 1571; died January 19, 1629) was Shah of Iran and the most eminent ^[64] In the early 18th century, Shia'a clergy attempted to force all dhimmis to embrace Islam, but without success. In 1830, all 2,500 Jews of Shiraz were forcibly converted to Islam. Shiraz ( شیراز Shīrāz) is the fifth most populated city in Iran and the capital of Fars Province. ^[65] In 1839, Jews were massacred in Mashhad and survivors were forcibly converted. Mashhad ( literally the place of martyrdom) is the second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the Shia ^[66] The same fate awaited the Jews of Barforoush in 1866, even though they were allowed to revert to Judaism after an intervention from the British and French ambassadors. ^[65]

The Almohads and Muslim authorities in Yemen practiced forcible conversion of children. Ye'or and Parfitt believe that this practice was based on the belief that every child is born a Muslim. ^[67] Suspecting a lack of sincerity on the part of Jews who were forcibly converted to Islam, Almohad rulers took Jewish children from their parents and raised those children as Muslims. ^[68] In Yemen, a 1922 Zaydi statute known as the Orphans Decree obligated the state to take under its protection and convert any dhimmi child whose parents had died (later extended to include fatherless children). Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Zaidiyya, Zaidism or Zaydism (Arabic الزيدية az-zaydiyya, adjective form Zaidi or Zaydi) is a Shī'a Madhhab ^[69] Although possibly intended to alleviate the plight of orphaned children, the Jewish community was dismayed,^[70] and Jewish leaders who helped hide orphans were imprisoned and sometimes tortured. ^[71] Despite this, the Jews in Yemen generally continued to feel that their position in society was secure. ^[70]

Sporadic waves of forced conversion occurred at different times and places: for example, in Libya in 1558-89, in Tabriz in 1291 and 1338, and in Baghdad in 1333 and 1344. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Tabriz ( تبریز, تبریز) is the largest city in northwestern Iran. Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous ^[60]

Restrictions on practice

Although dhimmis were allowed to perform their religious rituals, they were obliged to do so in a manner not conspicuous to Muslims. Display of non-Muslim religious symbols, such as crosses or icons, was prohibited on buildings and on clothing (unless mandated as part of distinctive clothing). A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish Loud prayers were forbidden, as was the ringing of church bells or the trumpeting of shofars. A shofar (שופר is a horn used for Jewish religious purposes ^[72]

Dhimmis had the right to choose their own religious leaders: patriarchs for Christians, exilarchs and geonim for Jews. Originally a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a Pater familias over an extended family Exilarch ( Aramaic: ריש גלותא Reish Galuta lit "Head of the Exile" ( Greek: Æchmalotarcha) refers to the leader of the Geonim ( Hebrew: גאונים also transliterated Gaonim) were the presidents of the two great rabbinical colleges of Sura However, the choice of the community was subject to the approval of the Muslim authorities, who sometimes blocked candidates or took the side of the party that offered the larger bribe. ^[73]

Dhimmis were prohibited from proselytizing on pain of death. Proselytism is the practice of attempting to convert people to another opinion and particularly another religion Neither were they allowed to obstruct the spread of Islam in any manner. Other restrictions included a prohibition on publishing or sale of non-Muslim religious literature and a ban on teaching the Qur’an. ^[38]

As required by the Pact of Umar, dhimmis had to bury their dead without loud lamentations and prayers. ^[38] Incidents of harassment of dhimmi funeral processions by Muslims, involving pelting with stones, battery, spitting, or cursing, even by Muslim children, were common regardless of place and time. ^[74]

Places of worship

According to Islamic law, the permission for dhimmis to retain their places of worship and build new ones depended upon the circumstances in which the land fell under the Muslim rule.

There was no consensus in Islamic jurisprudence as to whether it was permissible for dhimmis to repair churches and synagogues. The Pact of Umar puts an obligation on dhimmis not to "restore, by night or by day, any [places of worship] that have fallen into ruin",^[38] and Ibn Kathir adhered to this view. According to Islamic tradition the Pact (Covenant of Umar (c 717 A Ismail ibn Kathir (ابن كثير (1301&ndash1373 was an Islamic scholar and renowned commentator on the Qur'an. ^[75] At the same time, al-Mawardi wrote that dhimmis may "rebuild dilapidated old temples and churches". Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi, known in Latin as Alboacen (972-1058 CE was an Arab Muslim jurist of the Shafii ^[76] As in the case of building new houses of worship, the ability of dhimmi communities to repair churches and synagogues usually depended upon its relationship with local Muslim authorities and its ability to pay bribes. ^[77] According to the Shafi'i Islamic jurist al-Nawawi, dhimmis could not use churches and synagogues if their land was conquered by attack. The Shāfi‘ī Madhab ( ar شافعي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh, or religious law within Abu Zakaria Mohiuddin Yahya Ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (1234 - 1278 ( Arabic:أبو زكريا يحيى بن شرف النووي popularly known as al-Nawawi, In such lands, as well as in towns founded after the conquest, or where inhabitants voluntarily converted wholesale to Islam, Islamic law does not allow dhimmis to build new churches and synagogues, or expand or repair existing ones, even if they fall into ruin. If the country submitted by capitulation, al-Nawawi wrote, dhimmis were permitted to build new houses of worship only if the capitulation treaty stated that dhimmis remained owners of their land. In observance of this prohibition, Abbasid caliphs al-Mutawakkil, al-Mahdi and Harun al-Rashid ordered the destruction, in their realms, of all churches and synagogues built after the Islamic conquest. Al-Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim ( Arabic المتوكل على الله جعفر بن المعتصم; March 821 &ndash December 861 was an Muhammad ibn Mansur al-Mahdi ( محمد بن منصورالمهدى) (ruled 775&ndash785 was the third Abbasid Caliph. Hārūn al-Rashīd (and Persian: هارون الرشيد) also spelled Harun ar-Rashid; English: Aaron the Upright, Aaron the In the 11th century, the Fatimid caliph al-Hakim oversaw over the demolition of all churches and synagogues in Egypt, Syria and Palestine, including the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Tāriqu l-Ḥākim, called bi Amr al-Lāh ( Arabic: الحاكم بأمر الله; literally "Ruler by God's Command" was the sixth Fatimid The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Sanctum Sepulchrum also called the Church of the Resurrection, ( Greek: Ναός της Αναστάσεως Naos tis Anastaseos However, al-Hakim subsequently allowed the rebuilding of the destroyed buildings. ^[77]

Nevertheless, dhimmis sometimes managed to expand churches and synagogues and even build new ones, albeit at the price of bribing local officials in order to get permissions. ^[78] When non-Muslim houses of worship were built in cities founded after the Islamic conquests, Muslim jurists usually justified such evasions of the Islamic law by claiming that those churches and synagogues had existed in the earlier settlements. This logic was applied to Baghdad, which was built on the place of an eponymous Persian village, as well as to some other cities. ^[79]

Blasphemy

Blasphemy by both Muslims and by dhimmis was severely punished. Blasphemy is the disrespectful use of the name of one or more gods. The definition of blasphemy included defamation of Muslim holy texts, denial of the prophethood of Muhammad, and disrespectful references to Islam. Scholars of the Hanbali and Maliki schools, as well as the Shi’ites, prescribe a death penalty for blasphemy, while Hanafis and to some extent Shafi’is advocate flogging and imprisonment in some cases, reserving the death penalty only for habitual and public offenders. ^[80] Al-Mawardi treat blasphemy as a capital crime. ^[48]

Many dhimmis were executed as a result of accusations that they insulted Islam. ^[81] Although some deliberately sought martyrdom, many blasphemers were insane or drunk; it was not uncommon for the blasphemy accusation to be made due to political considerations or private vengeance, and the fear of a blasphemy charge was a big factor in the fearful and subservient attitude of dhimmis toward Muslims. ^[82] As Edward William Lane put it describing his visit to Egypt: "[Jews] scarcely ever dare to utter a word of abuse when reviled or beaten by the meanest Arab or Turk; for many a Jew have been put to death upon a false and malicious accusation of uttering disrespectful words against the Kuran or the Prophet". Edward William Lane ( September 17, 1801, Hereford, England &mdash August 10, 1876, Worthing, Sussex ^[83] Accusations of blasphemy provoked acts of violence against the entire dhimmis communities, as it happened in Tunis in 1876, Hamadan in 1876, Aleppo in 1889, Sulaymaniya in 1895, Tehran in 1895, or Mosul in 1911. Tunis ( Arabic: تونس Tūnis) is the Capital of the Tunisian Republic and also the Tunis Hamedān or Hamadān ( Persian: همدان, Old Persian: Hagmatana Hebrew: המזיין Ancient Greek: Ecbatana) For other meanings see Aleppo (disambiguation. Halab redirects here for other meanings see Halab (disambiguation. Sulaimaniya ( BGN: Kurdish: سلێمانی, Slêmanî, Sulaimānīyah;) is a city Tehran (or Teheran) ( Persian: تهران Tehrān) is the capital and largest City of Iran, and the administrative center of For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul ^[84]

Taxation

Main article: Jizya

Dhimmi communities were subjected to the payment of taxes in favor of Muslims — a requirement that was central to dhimma as a whole. Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic Sura 9:29 stipulates that jizya be exacted from non-Muslims as a condition required for jihad to cease. This is a sub-article to At-Tawba. The consensus opinion of Muslim scholars justifies the imposition of tribute on non-Muslims who fall under the Muslim Failure to pay the jizya could result in the pledge of protection of a dhimmi's life and property becoming void, with the dhimmi facing the alternatives of conversion, enslavement or death (or imprisonment, as advocated by Abu Yusuf, the chief qadi — religious judge — of Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid). Yaqub ibn Ibrahim al-Ansari better known as Abu Yusuf (أبو يوسف (d Qadi (also known as Qazi or Kazi or Kadi) (قاضي is a judge ruling in accordance with the Sharia, Islamic religious law ^[85]

Taxation from the perspective of Dhimmis who came under the Muslim rule was "a concrete continuation of the taxes paid to earlier regimes" and from the point of view of the Muslim conqueror was a material proof of Dhimmi's subjection. ^[86] Lewis states that it seems that the change from Byzantine to Arab rule was welcomed by many among the Dhimmis who found the new yoke far lighter than the old, both in taxation and in other matters. Some even among the Christians of Syria and Egypt preferred the rule of Islam to that of Byzantines. ^[15]

The importance of dhimmis as a source of revenue for the Muslim community is illuminated in a letter ascribed to Umar I and cited by Abu Yusuf: "if we take dhimmis and share them out, what will be left for the Muslims who come after us? By God, Muslims would not find a man to talk to and profit from his labors. A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish "^[87] The two main taxes imposed on dhimmis are known as jizya — a poll tax — and kharaj — a land tax. Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic A poll tax, head tax, or capitation is a Tax of a uniform fixed amount per individual (as opposed to a percentage of income In Islamic law, kharaj is a Tax on agricultural land Kharaj has no basis in the Qur'an or Hadith, being rather the product Early chronicles use these terms indiscriminately; only later did the kharaj emerge as a tax payable by a farmer regardless of his religion. ^[88]

In an important early account, Malik's Muwatta reports that the jizya was collected from men only, dhimmis were exempt from zakat, and additional taxes were to be levied against dhimmis who travelled on business:

"The Sunnah is that there is no jizya due from women or children of people of the Book, and that jizya is only taken from men who have reached puberty. The Muwaṭṭa (الموطأ is an early statement of Muslim law compiled and edited by Imam Malik. This is a sub-article of Islamic economical jurisprudence. Zakaat ( زكاة zækæːh zakaat or zakāh, has the implied Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” This article is about the theological concept in Islam. For the novel by Geraldine Brooks see People of the Book (novel. The people of dhimma . . . do not have to pay any zakat . . . This is because zakat is imposed on the Muslims to purify them and to be given back to their poor, whereas jizya is imposed on the people of the Book to humble them. . . If in any one year they frequently come and go in Muslim countries then they have to pay a tenth every time they do so, since that is outside what they have agreed upon, and not one of the conditions stipulated for them. This is what I have seen the people of knowledge of our city doing. " (17 24.46)

Most Islamic scholars agree that jizya must be levied only upon adult males. Another interpretation is that jizya was only paid by men because it was an exchange for the dhimmi's life: as it was only the adult males whose lives were forfeit in defeat, so only they had to pay the jizya.

The 8th-century scholar Abu Ubayd advised that dhimmis must not be burdened above their capacity or caused to suffer. ^[85] Al-Nawawi, however, dissents, demanding "the poll tax to be paid by dying people, the old, … the blind, monks, workers, and the poor, incapable of practicing a trade. Abu Zakaria Mohiuddin Yahya Ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (1234 - 1278 ( Arabic:أبو زكريا يحيى بن شرف النووي popularly known as al-Nawawi, " The latter view was often applied in practice, as contemporary non-Muslim sources give witness of taxation even of dead persons, widows, and orphans. Al-Nawawi demands that the unpaid amount of poll tax remain a debt to the dhimmi’s account until he becomes solvent. ^[89] In the Ottoman Empire, dhimmis had to carry a receipt certifying their payment of jizya at all times or be subject to imprisonment.

Although in general dhimmis had to pay higher taxes (despite not having to pay zakat), Lewis notes that there are varying opinions among scholars as to how much of an additional burden this was. ^[85] According to Norman Stillman: "Jizya and kharaj were a crushing burden for the non-Muslim peasantry who eked out a bare living in a subsistence economy. "^[90] Ultimately, the additional taxation was a critical factor that drove many dhimmis to accept Islam. ^[7]

Legal aspects

Use of Muslim and dhimmi courts

Dhimmis were allowed to operate their own courts following their own legal systems in cases that did not involve other religious groups, or capital offences or threats to public order. However, in the Ottoman Empire of the 18th and 19th centuries dhimmis frequently attended the Muslim courts. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar This was not only when their appearance was compulsory (for example in cases brought against them by Muslims) but also in order to record property and business transactions within their own communities. Cases were taken out against Muslims, against other dhimmis and even against members of the dhimmi’s own family. Dhimmis often took cases relating to marriages, divorces and inheritance cases to the Muslim courts so that these cases would be decided under shari’a law. Oaths sworn by dhimmis in the Muslim courts were sometimes the same as the oaths taken by Muslims, sometimes tailored to the dhimmis’ beliefs. ^[91]

Prohibition on testimony

When a case pitched a Muslim against a dhimmi, the word of Muslim witnesses nearly always preponderated over that of dhimmis. According to Hanafi jurists dhimmi testimony and oaths were not valid against Muslims. ^[91] On the other hand, Muslims could testify against dhimmis. ^[92] This legal disability put dhimmis in a precarious position where they could not defend themselves against false accusations leveled by Muslims, except by hiring Muslim witnesses and bribing qadis. Bat Ye'or believes that apart from breeding corruption, the prohibition on non-Muslim testimony deepened the rift between communities, as dhimmis sought to reduce the possibility of conflict by limiting contact with Muslims. ^[93]

Punishment for murder of a dhimmi

The Hanafi school, which represents the vast majority of Muslims, believes that the murder of a dhimmi must be punishable by death, citing a hadith according to which Muhammad ordered the execution of a Muslim who killed a dhimmi. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics In other schools of Islamic jurisprudence the maximum punishment for the murder of a dhimmi, if perpetrated by a Muslim, was the payment of blood money; no death penalty was possible. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the For Maliki and Hanbali schools of jurisprudence, the value of a dhimmi's life was one-half the value of a Muslim's life; in the Shafi'i school, Jews and Christians were worth one-third of a Muslim and Zoroastrians were worth just one-fifteenth. The Maliki Madhhab ( Arabic مالكي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam Hanbali ( حنبلى) is one of the four schools ( Madhhabs of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam (the other three being ^[94][95]

A peculiar practice developed in Yemen, where Arab tribes collected jizya from Jews, offering them protection. Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya If a Muslim from one tribe killed a Jew protected by another tribe, then the other tribe could retaliate by killing a Jew protected by the tribe of the murderer. As a result, two Jews were murdered, while no direct sanctions were imposed on the Muslims. ^[96]

Inheritance

The general rule in Islamic law is that a difference in religion is an obstacle to inheritance, so that neither dhimmis can inherit from Muslims, nor Muslims can inherit from dhimmis. However, some jurists maintain that a Muslim can inherit from a dhimmi, while a dhimmi cannot inherit from a Muslim. Shi'a scholars went so far as to argue that if a dhimmi dies leaving even one Muslim heir, all the estate belongs to the Muslim heir at the expense of any dhimmi heirs. This provision was a subject of frequent complaints from Persian Jews. |||} Persian Jews or Iranian Jews are Jews historically associated with the Persian Empire or Iran. ^[97]

Personal safety

In accordance with the Pact of Umar, dhimmis had no right to bear arms of any kind. ^[38] The few exceptions to this rule were some Jewish tribes in the Atlas Mountains and in the Central Asia. The Atlas Mountains ( Kabyle: Idurar n leṭles جبال الأطلس) is a Mountain range across a northern stretch of Africa extending about 2400 Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south ^[98] Despite the prohibition to carry weapons, Muslim jurists allowed using a dhimmi as an auxiliary soldier "as one would use a dog". ^[99] In the border provinces, dhimmis were sometimes recruited for military operations. In such cases, they were exempted from jizya for the year of service;^[100] however, they were not entitled to a share in the booty, receiving only a fixed stipend. ^[101]

Being forbidden to bear arms, non-Muslims relied on the Muslim authorities for personal safety. Usually these authorities managed to protect dhimmis from violence, but such protection was likely to fail at times of public disorder. ^[102] In the Maghreb during changes of reign and periods of instability, Jewish quarters were pillaged and their inhabitants either massacred or abducted for ransom. ^[68]

Outbreaks of violence, including massacres and expulsions, directed against dhimmis became more frequent from the late 18th century onwards. The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system In 1790, Jews were massacred in Tetouan and then in 1828, in Baghdad. Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Tétouan ( Arabic: تطوان (meaning eyes in the Berber language) also spelled Tetuan, sometimes Tettawen or Tettawan, is a city The year 1828 ( MDCCCXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap In mid-19th century a wave of violence and forced conversions of Jews swept across Persia: in 1834, Jews were massacred in Safed, in 1839 in Mashhad, and in 1867 in Barforoush. The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Year 1834 ( MDCCCXXXIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Safed (צְפַת pronounced Tsfat; صفد pronounced Safad) is a city in the Northern District of Israel. Year 1839 ( MDCCCXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Mashhad ( literally the place of martyrdom) is the second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the Shia Year 1867 ( MDCCCLXVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Other outbreaks followed in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and other Arab countries of the Middle East. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. ^[103] In 1860, 5,000 Christians were massacred in Damascus. Year 1860 ( MDCCLX) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year starting ^[104] In 19th-century Iraq, especially in the area of Mosul, both Jews and Christians lived in a state of constant insecurity. For the village in Azerbaijan see Mosul Azerbaijan. Mosul (الموصل Al Mūṣul, Kurdish: Mosul/Ninawa, Musul ^[105]

Enslavement

The Islamic law and custom prohibited the enslavement of free dhimmis within the Islamic lands. ^[106] An exception to the right of personal freedom guaranteed by the dhimma was the practice of enslavement of young non-Muslim boys for the ruler’s slave army. The practice goes back to the Abbasids, who recruited such slave warriors mainly from non-Muslim Turkic populations; descendants of those slaves later formed the Mamluk dynasties. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family ^[107] The Ottoman Empire practiced a similar system, known as devshirmeh, by annually enslaving young boys from the Christian population of its Balkan provinces, to muster Janissary troops. Devşirme or devshirme (derived from devşirme meaning "collection gathering" was the systematic collection of non-Muslim children The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed

Social and psychological aspects

Humiliation of dhimmis

Jurists and the Qur'anic commentators had different views regarding the manner of payment jizya. Jurists were more humane and practical toward the Dhimmis while commentators usually mentioned humiliating procedures for the collection of Jizya. ^[108]

Views of commentators

In his commentary on Sura 9:29, Ibn Kathir writes that dhimmis must be:

disgraced, humiliated and belittled. This is a sub-article to At-Tawba. The consensus opinion of Muslim scholars justifies the imposition of tribute on non-Muslims who fall under the Muslim Therefore, Muslims are not allowed to honor the people of the dhimma or elevate them above Muslims, for they [dhimmis] are miserable, disgraced, and humiliated. ^[109]

Friedmann sees some Quranic verses as suggesting that Muslims inflict humiliation and misery on unbelievers in support of the goal of making Islam prevail over all other religions. ^[110] According to 14th-century Egyptian scholar Ibn Naqqash: "[T]he prior degradation of the infidels in this world before the life to come — where it is their lot — is considered an act of piety. "^[111] In societies where honor plays a critical role, denigration of dhimmis was supposed to reduce them to the lowest level of human life, helping to generate many conversions among dhimmis of upper classes. ^[112] Bernard Lewis comments:

The Qur’an and tradition often use the word dhull or dhilla (humiliation or abasement) to indicate the status God has assigned to those who reject Mohammad, and in which they should be kept for so long as they persist in that rejection. ^[113]

As recommended by many Muslim scholars, jizya was to be collected in a humiliating procedure:

[T]he collector remains seated and the infidel remains standing…, his head bowed and his back bent. The infidel must place money on the scales, while the collector holds him by his beard and strikes him on both cheeks. (Al-Nawawi)^[114]

Jews, Christians, and Majians must pay the jizya… on offering up the jizya, the dhimmi must hang his head while the official takes hold of his beard and hits [the dhimmi] on the protruberant bone beneath his ear [i. Abu Zakaria Mohiuddin Yahya Ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (1234 - 1278 ( Arabic:أبو زكريا يحيى بن شرف النووي popularly known as al-Nawawi, e. , the mandible]… (Al-Ghazali)^[115]

Following this [the handing over of the jizya payment] the emir will strike the dhimmi on the neck with his fist; a man will stand near the emir to chase away the dhimmi in haste; then a second and a third will come forward to suffer the same treatment as well as all those to follow. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died All [Muslims] will be admitted to enjoy this spectacle. (Ahmad al-Dardi al-Adawi)^[116]

On the day of payment they [the dhimmis] shall be assembled in a public place … They should be standing there waiting in the lowest and dirtiest place. The acting officials representing the law shall be placed above them and shall adopt a threatening attitude so that it seems to them, as well as to the others, that our object is to degrade them by pretending to take their possessions. They will realize that we are doing them a favor in accepting from them the jizya and letting them go free. They then shall be dragged one by one for the exacting of payment. When paying, the dhimmi will receive a blow and will be thrown aside so that he will think that he has escaped the sword through this. This is the way that the friends of the Lord, of the first and last generations, will act toward their infidel enemies, for might belongs to Allah, to His Prophet, and to the believers. (Muhammad Abd al-Karim al-Maghili)^[117]

The dhimmis posture during the collection of the jizya – [lowering themselves] by walking on their hands, reluctantly; on the authority of Ibn ’Abbas (al Tabari). Muhammad ibn Abd al-Karim al-Maghili, commonly known as Muhammad al-Maghili (died c Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبو جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري was one of the earliest most prominent and famous Persian Historians ^[118]

Some scholars explicitly link this ritual to the interpretation of Sura ^{[Qur'an 9:29]}, that jizya was not merely to be a tax, but also a symbol of humiliation:^[113]

[Saaghiruuna means] submissively… by coercion… [’an yadin means] directly, not trusting the trickery of an intermediary… by force… without resistance… in an unpraiseworthy manner… while you stand [and the dhimmi] sits with the whip in front of you [you take] the money while he has dirt on his head. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran (Al-Suyuti's tafsir on Sura 9:29)^[119]

Echoing a saying attributed to Muhammad (Sahih Muslim 26:5389), Hasan al-Kafrawi, an 18th century scholar, advises that "if you [Muslims] encounter one of them [dhimmis] on the road, push him into the narrowest and tightest spot". TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Imam Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti (c Tafsir ( Arabic: تفسير, tafsīr, "interpretation" is the Arabic word for Exegesis This is a sub-article to At-Tawba. The consensus opinion of Muslim scholars justifies the imposition of tribute on non-Muslims who fall under the Muslim Sahih Muslim ( Arabic: صحيح مسلم ṣaḥīḥ Muslim, full title "Al-Musnadu Al-Sahihu bi Naklil Adli" is one of the Six major collections ^[120] Both Muslim sources and European travelers to the Middle East describe humiliations and insults of dhimmis, and especially of the Jews. ^[113][121] Throwing of stones at dhimmis was a favorite amusement of Muslim children in many places from early times until nowadays. ^[102][122]

The annual payment ritual was not followed in parts of the Ottoman Empire, where jizya was collected from individuals by representatives of the dhimmi communities themselves. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish ^[89] Dhimmis were frequently referred to by derogatory names, both in the official and in the everyday speech. In the Ottoman Empire, the official appellation for dhimmis was "raya", meaning "a herd of cattle". In the Muslim parlance, "apes" was the standard epithet for the Jews, while Christians were frequently denoted as "pigs". These animalistic parallels were rooted in the Qur'anic verses describing some People of the Book being transformed into apes and pigs (Qur'an ^{[Qur'an 5:60]}). The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran ^[123]

Jurists

Abu Ubayd, author of a classical treatise on taxation insists that the taxation must not be burdensome beyond the capacity of dhimmis, nor should the dhimmis suffer. ^[124] The jurist Abu Yusuf, the chief judge of the Caliph Harun Al-Rashid, rule the following regarding the manner of collecting the jizya ^[125]

No one of the people of the dhimma should be beaten in order to exact payment of the jizya, nor made to stand in the hot sun, nor should hateful things be inflicted upon their bodies, or anything of that sort. Rather they should be treated with leniency.

Distinctive clothing

See also Jewish hat

For dhimmis to be clearly distinguishable from Muslims in public, Muslim rulers often prohibited dhimmis from wearing certain types of clothing, while forcing them to put on highly distinctive garments, usually of a bright color. For the modern Jewish skullcap see Kippah. The Jewish hat also known as the Jewish cap, Judenhut ( German) The scholars cited the Pact of Umar in which Christians supposedly took an obligation to "always dress in the same way wherever we may be, and… bind the zunar [wide belt] round our waists". According to Islamic tradition the Pact (Covenant of Umar (c 717 A Al-Nawawi required dhimmis to wear a piece of yellow cloth and a belt, as well as a metallic ring, inside public baths. ^[126]

Regulations on dhimmi clothing varied frequently to please the whims of the ruler. Although the initiation of such regulations is usually attributed to Umar I, historical evidence suggests that it was the Abbasid caliphs who pioneered this practice. In 849 al-Mutawakkil ordered dhimmis to put a yellow veil on their heads and shoulders and wear a wide belt. Al-Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim ( Arabic المتوكل على الله جعفر بن المعتصم; March 821 &ndash December 861 was an He also required them to wear small bells in public baths. In the 11th century, the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim ordered Christians to put on half-meter wooden crosses and Jews to wear wooden calves around their necks. Tāriqu l-Ḥākim, called bi Amr al-Lāh ( Arabic: الحاكم بأمر الله; literally "Ruler by God's Command" was the sixth Fatimid The golden calf (עגל הזהב was an idol (a Cult image) made for the Israelites during Moses ' absence as he went up to Mount Sinai In the late 12th century, Almohad ruler Abu Yusuf ordered the Jews of the Maghreb to wear dark blue garments with long sleeves and saddle-like caps. Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Mansur (ابو يوسف يعقوب المنصور (c His grandson Abdallah al-Adil made a concession after appeals from the Jews, relaxing the required clothing to yellow garments and turbans. Abu Mohammed Abdallah al-Adil ( was selected as sultan of Morocco following the 1223 strangulation of the previous Almohad sultan Abdul-Wahid I. In the 16th century, Jews of the Maghreb could only wear sandals made of rushes and black turbans or caps with a red piece of garment on it. ^[127]

Ottoman sultans were similarly diligent and inventive in regulating the clothings of their non-Muslim subjects. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish In 1577, Murad III issued a firman forbidding Jews and Christians from wearing dresses, turbans, and sandals. Murad III ( Ottoman Turkish: مراد ثالث Murād-i sālis, Turkish: III A firman is a royal mandate or decree issued by a sovereign in certain historical Islamic states including the Ottoman Empire, Mughal Empire, and Iran In 1580, he changed his mind, restricting the previous prohibition to turbans and requiring dhimmis to wear black shoes; Jews and Christians also had to wear red and black hats, respectively. Observing in 1730 that some Muslims took to the habit of wearing caps similar to those of the Jews, Mahmud I ordered the hanging of the perpetrators. Mahmud I (in Arabic محمودالأول ( August 2, 1696 December 13, 1754) was the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire Mustafa III personally helped to enforce his decrees regarding clothes. Mustafa III ( Ottoman Turkish: مصطفى ثالث Muṣṭafā-yi sālis) ( January 28, 1717 January In 1758, he was walking incognito in Istanbul and ordered the beheading of a Jew and an Armenian seen dressed in forbidden attire. Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large The last Ottoman decree affirming the distinctive clothing for dhimmis was issued in 1837 by Mahmud II. Mahmud II ( Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) ( July 20, 1785 July 1, 1839 Discriminatory clothing did not exist only in those Ottoman provinces where Christians were in majority, e. g. in Greece and the Balkans. ^[127]

Riding

Dhimmis were forbidden to ride horses or camels; they were only allowed to ride donkeys and only on packsaddles, a prohibition that has its roots in the Pact of Umar. ^[38] In the 18th century, Damanhuri, rector of Al-Azhar University, summed up the consensus of Islamic jurists: "Neither Jew nor Christian should ride a horse, with or without saddle. Al-Azhar University (pronounced "az-HAR" الأزهر الشريف, "the Noble Azhar" in Egypt, founded in 975 is the chief centre of They may ride asses with a packsaddle. "^[128] An additional requirement for dhimmis was not ride astride, but only sidesaddle, like a woman. ^[129] In the Mamluk Egypt, where non-Mamluk Muslims were not allowed to ride horses and camels, dhimmis were prohibited even from riding donkeys inside cities. ^[130] The same prohibition imposed on dhimmis was recorded in the 19th century in Damascus,^[131] as well as in Tunisia. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. ^[132]

European travelers passing through the Middle East in the 18th and 19th centuries left ample evidence of the careful enforcement of prohibitions on horseback riding. Danish traveler Carsten Niebuhr wrote in 1761 that in Egypt, Jews and Christians were forced to alight while passing the houses of notable Muslims and when meeting such notables in the street. Carsten Niebuhr or Karsten Niebuhr ( March 17, 1733 &ndash April 26, 1815) was a German Mathematician, ^[133] A Frenchman visiting Cairo in 1697 recorded the same situation. In Yemen and in the rural areas of Morocco, Libya, Iraq, and Persia, dhimmis had to dismount from a mule when passing a Muslim. ^[131]

Dwelling places

The dhimmis’ obligation not to build houses higher than those of Muslims is one of the clauses of the Pact of Umar,^[38] supported as a desirable condition of “dhimma” by the consensus opinion of Islamic scholars. ^[134] According to Bat Ye’or, the rule was not always enforced; for example, no such laws were recorded in Muslim Spain, and in Tunisia Jews owned fine houses. ^[135] Sometimes, Muslim rulers issued regulations requiring dhimmis to attach distinctive signs to their houses. In the 9th century, Abbasid caliph al-Mutawakkil ordered dhimmis to nail wooden images of devils to the doors of their homes. Al-Mutawakkil ˤAlā Allāh Jaˤfar ibn al-Muˤtasim ( Arabic المتوكل على الله جعفر بن المعتصم; March 821 &ndash December 861 was an ^[136] At about the same time in Tunisia, a qadi of the Aghlabid dynasty compelled dhimmis to nail onto their doors a board bearing the sign of a monkey. The Aghlabid dynasty of emirs members of the Arab tribe of Bani Tamim, ruled Ifriqiya (northern Africa nominally on behalf of the Abbasid ^[137] In Bukhara, Jews had to hang a piece of cloth out of their houses so that they could be distinguished from those of Muslims. Bukhara (Buxoro Бухоро بُخارا Бухара also spelled as Bukhoro and Bokhara, from the Soghdian βuxārak ("lucky ^[138]

Dhimmis were seldom prohibited from living in certain places, but there were some exceptions. In Morocco, where beginning from the 15th century and especially since the early 19th century, Jews were confined to mellahs — walled quarters, similar to European ghettos. A mellah ( Arabic ملاح probably from the word ملح Arabic for "salt" is a walled Jewish quarter of a city in Morocco, an A ghetto is described as a "portion of a city in which members of a minority group live especially because of social legal or economic pressure Jews were also forced to live in separate quarters in Persia. Neither Jews nor Christians were allowed to live in Hejaz after Umar I had expelled them. ^[139]

Marriage

Islamic jurists reject the possibility that a dhimmi man (and generally any non-Muslim) may marry a Muslim woman. ^[140] According to Friedmann, Islamic law regarding mixed marriages developed out of three Quranic verses — ^{[Qur'an 2:221]}, ^{[Qur'an 60:10]}, and ^{[Qur'an 5:5]}. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran As some early Muslim scholars put it, Friedmann relates, such a marriage would lead to an incompatibility between the superiority of a woman by virtue of her being a Muslim and her unavoidable subservience to a non-Muslim husband. Friedmann also claims that some traditionalists compare marriage to enslavement and thus just like dhimmis are prohibited from having Muslim slaves, so dhimmi men are not allowed to have Muslim wives; conversely, Muslim men were allowed to marry women of the "People of the Book" because the enslavement of non-Muslims by Muslims is allowed. This article is about the theological concept in Islam. For the novel by Geraldine Brooks see People of the Book (novel. ^[141] Azizah Y. al-Hibri states that the relevant hadith regarding marriage and slavery draw an analogy between the status of women and slaves in Muhammad's society in order to beseech the male audience to treat them kindly: "Be good to women; for they are powerless captives (awan) in your households. Azizah Y al-Hibri is a professor at the T C Williams School of Law University of Richmond. You took them in God’s trust, and legitimated your sexual relations with the Word of God, so come to your senses people, and hear my words. . . "^[142]

The prohibition of marriage between Muslim woman and Dhimmi man was enforced with the utmost rigor,^[143] with any violations of it, including a sexual relationship between a non-Muslim man and a Muslim woman, being punishable by death. All schools of Islamic jurisprudence, with the exception of Hanafi, treated dhimmis who married or engaged in sexual relations with Muslim women like adulterers, for whom the punishment is death by stoning. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the The Hanafi ( Arabic حنفي school is the oldest of the four schools of thought ( Madhhabs Stoning, or lapidation, refers to a form of Capital punishment whereby an organized group throws stones at the convicted individual until the person dies ^[144] In cases when a non-Muslim wife converts to Islam, while her non-Muslim husband does not, their marriage is annulled. ^[145]

Contact restrictions

Andrew Wheatcroft describes how some social customs such as different conceptions of dirt and cleanliness made it difficult for the religious communities to live close to each other, either under Muslim or under Christian rule.

For Muslims and Christians alike the experience of living in close proximity to unbelievers was disquieting. The social customs of each group invariably sought to minimize contact with the people of other faiths. Each often spoke of the other in terms of fear and sometimes disgust. ^[146]

Shia Ritual purity

Shi'a Islam devotes much attention to the issues of ritual purity — tahara. Strict Shi'as consider Non-Muslims ritually unclean — najis — so that certain physical contact with them or things they touched with wet hands would require purification before undertaking religious or ritual duties. This is a sub-article to Hygiene in Islam. In Islamic law, najis (نجس are things or persons regarded as ritually unclean ^[147] In Persia, where Shi'ism is dominant, these beliefs brought about restrictions that aimed at limiting physical contact between Muslims and dhimmis. In the late nineteenth-century, some very strict authorities in Iran forbade Jews to go out in rain or snow. "By the early years of the twentieth century such beliefs and the resulting practices were gradually being forgotten". However, Lewis, pointing out the view of Ruhollah Khomeini on ritual purity, states that such beliefs have been more recently remembered. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 ^[148] Opinions of modern Shi'a scholars range from Ruhollah Khomeini's view that all non-Muslims are unclean^[149] to the position held by Fazel Lankarani that Jews and Christians are clean. Clerical activities Grand Ayatollah Fazel Lankarani was declared as the most knowledgeable specialist in the field of the Islamic law ( Marja al-taqlid) by the central ^[150]

Consequences of dhimma

Over the course of many centuries, dhimma gradually led to the conversion of most Zoroastrians and Christians to Islam, but had a limited impact on the Jews. Zoroastrianism was the first to crumble after the Muslim conquest of Persia. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Closely associated with the power structures of the Persian Empire, Zoroastrian clergy quickly declined after it was deprived of the state support. ^[7]

For Christians, the process of conversion was slower — it is possible that as late as at the time of the Crusades Christians still constituted a majority of the population — but no less inexorable. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The switch from a dominant to an inferior position proved too difficult for many Christians and they converted to Islam in large numbers. Christianity disappeared altogether in Central Asia, Yemen, and the Maghreb, when it was subjected to persecution by the Almohads. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset Christians continued to live in Syria, Iraq, and Egypt, but their numbers were still reduced to a tiny minority. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The relative resiliency of Christians in those countries stemmed from their subordinated position in the Byzantine Empire, which made them more amenable to accepting Muslim supremacy; he suggests that many of them felt better under the early Muslim rule than under the Byzantines. ^[7]

Jews were the least affected. Accustomed to survival in adverse circumstances after many centuries of Roman and Byzantine persecutions, Jews saw the Islamic conquests as just another change of rulers; this time, not necessarily for the worse. Voluntary conversion among the Jews was rare, and they managed to preserve their religion all over the Muslim lands. ^[7]

Dhimma in the modern world

The status of dhimmi "was for long accepted with resignation by the Christians and with gratitude by the Jews" but ceased to be so after the rising power of Christendom and the radical ideas of the French revolution caused a wave of discontent among Christian dhimmis. ^[151] While Muslims opposed abolishment of dhimma laws, continuing and growing pressure from the European powers and also pressure from Muslim reformers gradually relaxed the inequalities between Muslims and non-Muslims. ^[152]

The enforcement of the laws of the dhimma was widespread in the Muslim world until the mid-nineteenth century, when the Ottoman empire significantly relaxed the restrictions placed on its non-Muslim residents. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish These relaxations occurred gradually as part of the Tanzimat reform movement, which began in 1839 with the accession of the Ottoman Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I. The Tanzimat ( Ottoman Turkish: تنظيمات meaning reorganization of the Ottoman Empire, was a period of reformation that began in 1839 Year 1839 ( MDCCCXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Abdülmecid I ( Ottoman Turkish: عبد المجيد اول ‘Abdü’l-Mecīd-i evvel) ( April 23 1823 June 25 1861 ^[153]

On November 3, 1839, an edict called the Hatt-i Sharif of Gulhane was put forth by the Sultan that, in part, proclaimed the principle of the equality of all subjects regardless of religion. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. Year 1839 ( MDCCCXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common The Hatt-i Sharif (Hatt-ı Şerif of Gülhane (Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber was an 1839 proclamation by Ottoman Sultan Abdülmecid I that Part of the motivation for this was the desire to gain support from the British Empire, whose help was desired in a conflict with Egypt. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. ^[154]

On February 18, 1856, another edict was issued called Hatt-i Humayan, which built upon the 1839 edict. Events 3102 BC - Epoch (origin of the Kali Yuga. 1229 - The Sixth Crusade: Frederick II Holy Year 1856 ( MDCCCLVI) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year The Hatt-ı Hümayun ( Imperial Edict, Imperial Reform Edict or Rescript of Reform) was a February 18, 1856 edict of the It came about partly as a result of pressure from and the efforts of the ambassadors of England, France, and Austria, whose respective countries were needed as allies in the Crimean War. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought It again proclaimed the principle of the equality of Muslims and non-Muslims, and produced many specific reforms to this end. For example, the jizya tax was abolished and non-Muslims were allowed to join the army. ^{[155][156][157]}

During World War I, Christian minorities (Greek, Armenian, Assyrian) were persecuted in the Ottoman Empire. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large The Assyrians are an Ethnic group whose origins lie in what is today Iraq, Iran, Turkey and Syria. Beginning as forced expulsion, the Turkish government began conducting harsher pogroms against Christian minorities such as massacres of Armenians, Greeks and Assyrians as early as 1914. In 1915, Henry Morgenthau, Sr., the U. Henry Morgenthau (ˈmɔrgəntaʊ April 26, 1856 – November 25, 1946) was a businessman and United States ambassador, most famous S. ambassador to the Empire, reported that 350,000 Armenians had been killed or starved. Prior to the U. S. entry in the war, the Turkish government also expelled American Christian missionaries from the country. ^[158]

Views of modern Islamic scholars about Dhimmi

• Ayatollah Khomeini in his book "On Islamic Government" indicates unequivocally that non-Muslims should be required to pay the poll tax, in return for which they would profit from the protection and services of the state; they would, however, be excluded from all participation in the political process. Seyyed Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini ( Persian:, pronounced muːsæviː-je xomejniː}}( September 24, 1902 – June 3 1989 ^[159] Bernard Lewis remarks about Khomeini that his main grievance against the Shah was that his legislation allowed the theoretical possibility of non-Muslims exercising political or judicial authority over Muslims. ^[160]
• Allameh Tabatabaei, a prominent contemporary Shia scholar, commenting on a hadith that claims that the verse 9:29 has "abrogated" other verses asking for good behaviour toward dhimmis, states that "abrogation" could be understood either in its terminological sense or its literal sense. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic If "abrogation" is understood in its terminological sense, Muslims should deal with dhimmis strictly in a good and decent manner. ^[161]
• Javed Ahmed Ghamidi writes in Mizan that certain directives of the Qur’an were specific only to the Prophet Muhammad against peoples of his times, besides other directives, the campaign involved asking the polytheists of Arabia for submission to Islam as a condition for exoneration and the others for jizya and submission to the political authority of the Muslims for exemption from death punishment and for military protection as the dhimmis of the Muslims. Javed Ahmad Ghamidi ( Urdu: جاوید احمد غامدی) (b worship javedjpg|100px|right]]manner javedjpg|100px|right]] Mizan ( English: balance; scale, Urdu: ميزان) is a comprehensive The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish Therefore, after the Prophet and his companions, there is no concept in Islam obliging Muslims to wage war for propagation or implementation of Islam. ^[162][163]
• The Shia jurist, Grand Ayatollah Makarem Shirazi states in the selection of the Tafsir Nemooneh that the main philosophy of jizya is that it is only a financial aid to those Muslims who are in the charge of safeguarding the security of the state and Dhimmis' lives and properties on their behalf^[164]
• Dr. Zakir Naik, a prominent Islamic preacher from India has stated that "as far as the matters of religion are concerned we know for sure that only Islam is the true religion in the eyes of God. Zakir Abdul Karim Naik (born October 18, 1965) is an Indian Public speaker, and Writer on the subject of Islam and In 3:85 it is mentioned that God will never accept any religion other than Islam. As far as the second question regarding building of churches or temples is concerned, how can we allow this when their religion is wrong? And when worship is also wrong? Thus we will surely not allow such wrong things in our (i. e. an Islamic) country. "^[165]

Myth of dhimmitude

Bernard Lewis states that there are two well-established myths available in the literature about the position of Jews in the Islamic world. Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American ^[166] Mark Cohen calls them the "Myth of an interfaith utopia" and "countermyth of the Islamic persecution of Jews". Mark Cohen may refer to Mark Cohen (''Rent'', fictional character Mark Cohen (cricketer Mark Cohen (comedian

The first myth states that medieval Islam provided a peaceful haven for Jews while Christendom relentlessly persecuted them. ^[167] "A golden age of equality, of mutual respect and cooperation, especially but not exclusively in Moorish Spain"^[166]

The other myth is the story of "dhimmitude" (a term coined by Bachir Gemayel and introduced into Western discourse by Bat Ye'or), of subservience and persecution and ill treatment. Dhimmitude is a Neologism, imported from the French language, and derived from the Arabic language adjective Dhimmi, which literally Bachir Gemayel ( 10 November 1947 – 14 September 1982) (also known as Sheikh Bachir Gemayel first name also spelled Bat Ye'or (בת יאור meaning "daughter of the Nile " a Pseudonym of Gisèle Littman, ^[166]

Lewis says these are myths and that like many myths, both contain significant elements of truth. According to Cohen they equally distort the past. The historic truth is in the middle of these extremes. ^[166][168]

See also

• Itmaam-i-hujjat

Related concepts

• Dhimmitude
• Aljama

Related historical events

• History of Christianity
• Jewish history

Related to Islamic Law

• Jihad
• Sharia
• Islamism
• Itmaam-i-hujjat

Terms used for people of other faiths

• Kafir
• People of the Book
• Gentile
• Goy
• Heathen

Related to restrictions

• Ottoman Millet system
• Minority religion
• Second-class citizen
• Yellow badge
• Recusancy

Website

• Dhimmi Watch

Notes

References

• Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". 27 Fordham International Law Journal 195.  
• Bat Ye'or (2002). Bat Ye'or (בת יאור meaning "daughter of the Nile " a Pseudonym of Gisèle Littman, Islam and Dhimmitude. Where Civilizations Collide. Madison/Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses. ISBN 0-8386-3943-7.  
• Bat Ye'or (1996). The Decline of Eastern Christianity under Islam. From Jihad to Dhimmitude. Seventh-Twentieth Century. Madison/Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press/Associated University Presses. ISBN 0-8386-3688-8.  
• Bat Ye'or (1985). The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians under Islam. Madison/Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. ISBN 0-8386-3262-9.  
• Bravmann, Meïr M. (1966). "The ancient background of the Qur’ānic Concept Al-Ğizyatu ‘an Yadin". Arabica 13.  
• Bostom, Andrew, ed. (2005). The Legacy of Jihad: Islamic Holy War and the Fate of Non-Muslims. Prometeus Books. ISBN 1-59102-307-6.  
• Bosworth, C. E. (1982). The Concept of Dhimma in Early Islam In Benjamin Braude and B. Lewis, eds. , Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society 2 vols. , New York: Holmes & Meier Publishing. ISBN 0-8419-0520-7
• Cahen, Claude "Djizya (i)". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. The Encyclopaedia of Islam ( EI) is the standard Encyclopaedia of the Academic discipline of Islamic studies. Ed. P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. Clifford Edmund Bosworth (born December 29, 1928, Sheffield, United Kingdom) is an English historian and orientalist, specializing van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.  
• Cohen, Mark (1995). Under Crescent and Cross: The Jews in the Middle Ages. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01082-X.  
• Courbage, Youssef and Fargues, Philippe (1995). Christians and Jews under Islam. London: I. B. Tauris Publishers. ISBN 1-86064-285-3.  
• Friedmann, Yohanan (2003). Yohanan Friedmann (born 1936 is an Israeli scholar of Islamic studies. Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith Relations in the Muslim Tradition. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-82703-5.  
• Goddard, Hugh (2000). A History of Christian-Muslim Relations. Chicago: New Amsterdam Books. ISBN 1-56663-340-0.  
• Eraqi-Klorman, Bat-Zion; Reeva Spector Simon (Ed. ), Michael Menachem Laskier (Ed. ), Sara Reguer (Ed. ) (2003). The Jews of the Middle East and North Africa in Modern Times. Columbia, NY: Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-10796-X.  
• Karsh, Ephraim (2006). Islamic Imperialism: A History. Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-10603-3.  
• Lapidus, Ira M. (2002). A History of Islamic Societies (2nd Edition). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-77933-2.  
• Lewis, Bernard (2002). Bernard Lewis (born May 31, 1916 in London, England) is a British - American The Arabs in History. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280310-7.  
• Lewis, Bernard (1984). The Jews of Islam. The Jews of Islam (1984 is a Book written by Middle-East historian and scholar Bernard Lewis. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00807-8.  
• Littman, David (1979). David Gerald Littman (b July 4, 1933, London) is a British Historian and Human rights activist at the United Nations "Jews Under Muslim Rule: The Case Of Persia". The Wiener Library Bulletin XXXII (New series 49/50).  
• Al-Mawardi (2000). Abu al-Hasan Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Habib al-Mawardi, known in Latin as Alboacen (972-1058 CE was an Arab Muslim jurist of the Shafii The Ordnances of Government (Al-Ahkam al-Sultaniyya w’al-Wilayat al-Diniyya). Lebanon: Garnet Publishing. ISBN 1-85964-140-7.  
• Parfitt, Tudor (2000). Tudor Parfitt (born 1944 is a British Professor of Modern Jewish Studies at the University of London’s School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS where he was the founding Israel and Ishmael : Studies in Muslim-Jewish Relations. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-312-22228-9.  
• Power, Samantha (2002). A Problem from Hell: America and the Age of Genocide. "A Problem from Hell" America and the Age of Genocide is a book by Samantha Power, Professor of Human Rights Practice at Harvard's John F New York: Harper Perennial. ISBN 0-06-054164-4.  
• al-Qattan, Najwa (1999). "Dhimmis in the Muslim Court: Legal Autonomy and Religious Discrimination". International Journal of Middle East Studies 31 (3): 429-444. University of Cambridge. ISSN 00207438.  
• Stillman, Norman (1979). The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book. Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America. ISBN 1-82760-198-1.  
• Tritton, Arthur S. (1930). Arthur Stanley Tritton, D Litt, ( February 25, 1881 &mdash November 8, 1973) was a British historian and scholar of The Caliphs and their non-Muslim Subjects: a Critical Study of the Covenant of Umar. London: Humphrey Milford/Oxford University Press.  
• Viré, F "Kird". Encyclopaedia of Islam Online. The Encyclopaedia of Islam ( EI) is the standard Encyclopaedia of the Academic discipline of Islamic studies. Ed. P. J. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. Clifford Edmund Bosworth (born December 29, 1928, Sheffield, United Kingdom) is an English historian and orientalist, specializing van Donzel and W. P. Heinrichs. Brill Academic Publishers. ISSN 1573-3912.  
• Waines, David (2003). An Introduction to Islam. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521539064.  
• Wehr, Hans (1976). in J. Milton Cowan, ed. : A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic. Ithaca, New York: Spoken Language Services, Inc. . ISBN 0-87950-001-8.  
• Wheatcroft, Andrew (2003). Infidels: A History of the Conflict between Christendom and Islam. Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-025738-1.  

Further reading

• Choksy, Jamsheed (1997). Conflict and Cooperation: Zoroastrian Subalterns and Muslim Elites in Medieval Iranian Society.  
• Fattal, Antoine (1958). Le statut légal des non-musulmans en pays d’Islam (in French).  
• Goitein, S. D. (1967-71). Shelomo Dov Goitein ( April 3, 1900 &mdash February 6 1985) whose original given name was Fritz was an Arabist, Historian The Mediterranean Society: The Jewish Communities of the Arab World as Portrayed in the Documents of the Cairo Geniza (4 vols. ).  
• Bat Ye'or: Der Niedergang des orientalischen Christentums unter dem Islam. 7. -20. Jahrhundert. Gräfeling 2002, ISBN 3-935197-19-5
• Karl Binswanger: Untersuchungen zum Status der Nichtmuslime im Osmanischen Reich des 16. Jahrhunderts. Diss. phil. München 1977, ISBN 3-87828-108-0
• Mark. R. Cohen: Unter Kreuz und Halbmond. Die Juden im Mittelalter. München 2005, ISBN 3-406-52904-6
• Nabil Luka Babawi: Les droits et les devoirs des chrétiens dans l'état islamique et leurs conséquences sur la sécurité nationale, thèse de doctorat.
• Bat Ye'or: Le Dhimmi : profil de l'opprimé en Orient et en Afrique du Nord depuis la conquête arabe. Bat Ye'or (בת יאור meaning "daughter of the Nile " a Pseudonym of Gisèle Littman, Éditions Anthropos, Paris 1980, ISBN 2-7157-0352-X
• Bat Ye'or: Les chrétientés d'Orient entre jihâd et dhimmitude : VII-XX siècle. Bat Ye'or (בת יאור meaning "daughter of the Nile " a Pseudonym of Gisèle Littman, Éditions du Cerf, Paris 1991, (L'histoire à vif), ISBN 2-204-04347-8
• Yohanan Friedmann: Classification of Unbelievers in Sunnī Muslim Law and Tradition. In: Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. 22 (1998), S.  163–195
• Mohammad Amin Al-Midani: La question des minorités et le statut des non-musulmans en Islam. In: La religion est-elle un obstacle à l'application des droits de l'homme?. colloque tenu les 10-11 décembre 2004 à Lyon.
• Pessah Shinar: Some remarks regarding the colours of male Jewish dress in North Africa and their Arabic-Islamic context. In: Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. 24/2000, S.  380–395
• M. Levy-Rubin: Shurut `Umar and its alternatives: the legal debate on the status of the dhimmis. In: Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam. 30/2005

External links

• Islamic and Christian Spain in the early Middle Ages. Thomas F. Glick: Chapter 5: Ethnic relations
• The Ahl al-Kitab in Early Fatimid Times
• Dhimmi: The Victims of Muslim Religious Apartheid
• The status of the Dhimmi: A critical perspective
• The status of the Dhimmi: An Islamic perspective
• The Status of Non-Muslim Minorities Under Islamic Rule
• Dhimmi Watch
• Islam and its tolerance level
• Bernard Lewis, Race and Slavery in the Middle East
• Jihad, the Arab Conquests and the Position of Non-Muslim Subjects
• Yusuf al-Qaradawi "Non Muslims in Islamic societies" (Arabic)
• [3][4][5][6][7][8][9]Rights of non-muslim minorities in Islam
• On Religious Tolerance, by Khalid Baig