Colonialism in 1945

Decolonization refers to the undoing of colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by another country or jurisdiction. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism The term generally refers to the achievement of independence by the various Western colonies and protectorates in Asia and Africa following World War II. Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including This conforms with an intellectual movement known as Post-Colonialism. Postcolonialism ( postcolonial theory, post-colonial theory) is an intellectual discourse that holds together a set of theories found among the texts and A particularly active period of decolonization occurred between 1945 to 1960, beginning with the independence of Pakistan and the Republic of India from the British Raj in 1947 and the First Indochina War. The Partition of India was the partition of the British Indian Empire which led to the creation on August 14, 1947 and August 15, For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, A number of national liberation movements were established prior to the war, but most did not achieve their aims until after it. Wars of national liberation are conflicts fought by indigenous military groups against an imperial power in the name of Self-determination, thus attempting Decolonization can be achieved by attaining independence, integrating with the administering power or another state, or establishing a "free association" status. The United Nations has stated that in the process of decolonization there is no alternative to the principle of self-determination. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Self-determination is defined as free choice of one’s own acts without external compulsion and especially as the freedom of the people of a given Territory to determine their Decolonization may involve peaceful negotiation and/or violent revolt and armed struggle by the native population. A nonviolent revolution is a Revolution using mostly nonviolent protest against governments seen as entrenched and Authoritarian to advocate Democracy Wars of national liberation are conflicts fought by indigenous military groups against an imperial power in the name of Self-determination, thus attempting

Methods and stages

Decolonization is a political process, frequently involving violence. In extreme circumstances, there is a war of independence, sometimes following a revolution. A revolution (from the Latin revolutio, "a turnaround" is a fundamental change in power or organizational structures that takes place in a relatively More often, there is a dynamic cycle where negotiations fail, minor disturbances ensue resulting in suppression by the police and military forces, escalating into more violent revolts that lead to further negotiations until independence is granted. Rebellion is a refusal of obedienceIt may therefore be seen as encompassing a range of Behaviours from Civil disobedience and mass Nonviolent resistance In rare cases, the actions of the native population are characterized by non-violence, with the Indian independence movement led by Mahatma Gandhi being one of the most notable examples, and the violence comes as active suppression from the occupying forces or as political opposition from forces representing minority local communities who feel threatened by the prospect of independence. Nonviolence is a philosophy and strategy for social change that rejects the use of physical Violence. The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January For example, there was a war of independence in French Indochina, while in some countries in French West Africa (excluding the Maghreb countries) decolonization resulted from a combination of insurrection and negotiation. First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit French West Africa ( Afrique occidentale française, AOF) was a Federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset The process is only complete when the de facto government of the newly independent country is recognized as the de jure sovereign state by the community of nations. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population.

Independence is often difficult to achieve without the encouragement and practical support from one or more external parties. The motives for giving such aid are varied: nations of the same ethnic and/or religious stock may sympathize with oppressed groups, or a strong nation may attempt to destabilize a colony as a tactical move to weaken a rival or enemy colonizing power or to create space for its own sphere of influence; examples of this include British support of the Haitian Revolution against France, and the Monroe Doctrine of 1823, in which the United States warned the European powers not to interfere in the affairs of the newly independent states of the Western Hemisphere. The Revolution (1791–1804 was the most successful of African Slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere The Monroe Doctrine is a US doctrine which on December 2 1823 stated that European powers were no longer to colonize or interfere with The Western Hemisphere, also Western hemisphere or western hemisphere, is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies West

As world opinion became more pro-emancipation following World War I, there was an institutionalized collective effort to advance the cause of emancipation through the League of Nations. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The League of Nations was an International organization founded as a result of the Treaty of Versailles in 1919–1920 Under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations, a number of mandates were created. A League of Nations mandate refers to a legal status for certain territories transferred from the control of one country to another following World War I. The expressed intention was to prepare these countries for self-government, but the reality was merely a redistribution of control over the former colonies of the defeated powers, mainly Germany and the Ottoman Empire. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish This reassignment work continued through the United Nations, with a similar system of trust territories created to adjust control over both former colonies and mandated territories administered by the nations defeated in World War II, including Japan. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Trust Territories were the successors of the remaining League of Nations mandates and came into being when the League of Nations ceased to exist in 1946

In referendums, some colonized populations have chosen to retain their colonial status, such as Gibraltar and French Guiana. Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France On the other hand, colonial powers have sometimes promoted decolonization in order to shed the financial, military and other burdens that tend to grow in those colonies where the colonial regimes have become more benign.

Decolonization is rarely achieved through a single historical act, but rather progresses through one or more stages of emancipation, each of which can be offered or fought for: these can include the introduction of elected representatives (advisory or voting; minority or majority or even exclusive), degrees of autonomy or self-rule. Thus, the final phase of decolonisation may in fact concern little more than handing over responsibility for foreign relations and security, and soliciting de jure recognition for the new sovereignty. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself But, even following the recognition of statehood, a degree of continuity can be maintained through bilateral treaties between now equal governments involving practicalities such as military training, mutual protection pacts, or even a garrison and/or military bases.

There is some debate over whether or not the United States, Canada and Latin America can be considered decolonized, as it was the colonist and their descendants who revolted and declared their independence instead of the indigenous peoples, as is usually the case. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. Scholars such as Elizabeth Cook-Lynn (Dakota) and Devon Mihesuah (Choctaw) have argued that portions of the United States still are in need of decolonization. Elizabeth Cook-Lynn (born 1930 is a Crow Creek Lakota Sioux editor essayist poet novelist and academic whose trenchant views on Native American For other meanings of the word including the United States states please see Dakota The Design Analysis Kit for Optimization and Terascale Applications Devon Abbott Mihesuah (born 2 June 1957) is a Choctaw historian and writer and a previous editor of the American Indian Quarterly. The Choctaw are a Native American people originally from the Southeastern United States ( Mississippi, Alabama, and Louisiana)

Decolonization in a broad sense

Stretching the notion further, internal decolonization can occur within a sovereign state. Thus, the expansive United States created territories, destined to colonize conquered lands bordering the existing states, and once their development proved successful (often involving new geographical splits) allowed them to petition statehood within the federation, granting not external independence but internal equality as 'sovereign' constituent members of the federal Union. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the France internalized several overseas possessions as Départements d'outre-mer. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Overseas department (départements d’outre-mer or DOM) is a designation under the 1946 Constitution of the Fourth Republic that was given to the

Even in a state which legally does not colonize any of its 'integral' parts, real inequality often causes the politically dominant component - often the largest and/or most populous part (such as Russia within the formally federal USSR as earlier in the czar's empire), or the historical conqueror (such as Austria, the homelands of the ruling Habsburg dynasty, within an empire of mainly Slavonic 'minorities' from Silesia to the shifting Ottoman border) - to be perceived, at least subjectively, as a colonizer in all but name; hence, the dismemberment of such a 'prison of peoples' is perceived as decolonisation de facto.

To complicate matters even further, this may coincide with another element. Thus, the three Baltic republics - Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania - argue that they, in contrast with other constituent SSRs, could not have been granted independence at the dismemberment of the Soviet Union because they never joined, but were militarily annexed by Stalin, and thus had been illegally colonized, including massive deportations of their nationals and uninvited immigration of ethnic Russians and other soviet nationalities. Estonia, officially the Republic of Estonia ( Eesti or Eesti Vabariik) is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Population transfer in the Soviet Union may be classified into the following broad categories deportations of " Anti-Soviet " categories of population often classified Even in other post-Soviet states which had formally acceded, most ethnic Russians were so much identified with the Soviet 'colonization,' they felt unwelcome and migrated back to Russia. The post-Soviet states, also commonly known as former Soviet republics, are the 15 independent nations that split off from the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ^[1]

Amongst the countries which are likely to decolonise territories over the next two decades are the U. K. (Bermuda, Gibraltar, Sovereign Bases in Cyprus, British Virgin Islands, Falklands, etc), U. S. A. (U. S. Virgin Islands, American Samoa, Guam, etc), and France (French Guiana, French Polynesia, New Caledonia, Reunion, Guadalope, etc).

Decolonization before 1918

See also: Decolonization of the Americas

Decolonization after 1918

Western European colonial powers

Further information: New Imperialism and Colonialism

Czechoslovak anti-colonialist propaganda poster: "Socialism opened the door of liberation for colonial nations. Decolonization of the Americas refers to the process by which the countries in North America and South America gained their independence New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism "

The New Imperialism period, with the scramble for Africa and the Opium Wars, marked the zenith of European colonization. New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New The Opium Wars ( also known as the Anglo-Chinese Wars, lasted from 1839 to 1842 and 1856 to 1860 the climax of a trade dispute between China under the Qing See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism It also marked the acceleration of the trends that would end it. The extraordinary material demands of the conflict had spread economic change across the world (notably inflation), and the associated social pressures of "war imperialism" created both peasant unrest and a burgeoning middle class. In economics inflation or price inflation is a rise in the general level of prices of goods and services over a period of time A peasant is an agricultural worker who subsists by working a small plot of ground The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power.

Economic growth created stakeholders with their own demands, while racial issues meant these people clearly stood apart from the colonial middle-class and had to form their own group. Economic growth is the increase in the amount of the goods and services produced by an economy over time The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets The start of mass nationalism, as a concept and practice, would fatally undermine the ideologies of imperialism. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation

There were, naturally, other factors, from agrarian change (and disaster – French Indochina), changes or developments in religion (Buddhism in Burma, Islam in the Dutch East Indies, marginally people like John Chilembwe in Nyasaland), and the impact of the depression of the 1930s. First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. See http//enwikipediaorg/wiki/WikipediaFootnotes for an explanation of how to generate footnotes using the tags and the template below Reverend John Chilembwe (1871 &ndash February 3, 1915) was an orthodox Baptist educator and an early figure in resistance The Republic of Malawi (məˈlɑːwi or; formerly Nyasaland) is in southern Africa.

The Great Depression, despite the concentration of its impact on the industrialized world, was also exceptionally damaging in the rural colonies. Agricultural prices fell much harder and faster than those of industrial goods. From around 1925 until World War II, the colonies suffered. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The colonial powers concentrated on domestic issues, protectionism and tariffs, disregarding the damage done to international trade flows. For the protectionist Australian political party from the 1880s to 1909 see Protectionist Party For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. The colonies, almost all primary "cash crop" producers, lost the majority of their export income and were forced away from the "open" complementary colonial economies to "closed" systems. In Agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for Money. In Economics, an export is any good or Commodity, Transported from one country to another country in a Legitimate fashion While some areas returned to subsistence farming (British Malaya) others diversified (India, West Africa), and some began to industrialise. Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficient farming in which farmers grow only enough food to feed the family and to pay taxes or feudal dues British Malaya loosely described a set of states on the Malay Peninsula that were colonized by the British from the 18th and the 19th until the 20th century West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. These economies would not fit the colonial strait-jacket when efforts were made to renew the links. Further, the European-owned and -run plantations proved more vulnerable to extended deflation than native capitalists, reducing the dominance of "white" farmers in colonial economies and making the European governments and investors of the 1930s co-opt indigenous elites — despite the implications for the future. Fundamentally a plantation is usually a large Farm or estate, especially in a tropical or semitropical country on which Cotton, Tobacco Deflation is the opposite of Inflation. Therefore under the usual contemporary definition of inflation 'deflation' means a decrease in the general price level. Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where A farmer is a person who raises living organisms for food or raw materials For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical

The efforts at colonial reform also hastened their end — notably the move from non-interventionist collaborative systems towards directed, disruptive, direct management to drive economic change. Collaboration is a recursive process where two or more people or organizations work together toward an intersection of common goals — for example an intellectual The creation of genuine bureaucratic government boosted the formation of indigenous bourgeoisie. Bureaucracy is the structure and set of regulations in place to control activity usually in large organizations and government This was especially true in the British Empire, which seemed less capable (or less ruthless) in controlling political nationalism. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. Driven by pragmatic demands of budgets and manpower the British made deals with the nationalist elites. They dealt with the white Dominions, retained strategic resources at the cost of reducing direct control in Egypt, and made numerous reforms in the Raj, culminating in the Government of India Act (1935). A dominion, often Dominion, refers to one of a group of autonomous polities under sovereign authority within the British Empire and This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The Government of India Act 1935 ( 26 Geo 5 & 1 Edw 8 c 2) was the last pre-independence constitution of the British Raj.

Africa was a very different case from Asia between the wars. Tropical Africa was not fully drawn into the colonial system before the end of the 19th century, excluding only the complexities of the Union of South Africa (busily introducing racial segregation from 1924 and thus catalyzing the anti-colonial political growth of half the continent) and the Empire of Ethiopia. } The Union of South Africa is the historic predecessor to the present-day state of the Republic of South Africa. The Ethiopian Empire, also known as Abyssinia, was in what is now Ethiopia and Eritrea. Colonial controls ranged between extremes. Economic growth was often curtailed. There were no indigenous nationalist groups with widespread popular support before 1939.

The United States

Main article: American empire

At end of the Spanish-American War, at the end of the 19th century, the United States of America held several colonial territories seized from Spain, among them the Philippines and Puerto Rico. American Empire is a term referring to the political economic military and cultural influence of the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Puerto Rico (ˌpwertoˈriko officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico ("Estado Libre Asociado de Puerto Rico" {{lang-en|"Associated Free State of Puerto Rico"}} Although the United States had initially embarked upon a policy of colonization of these territories (and had fought to suppress local "insurgencies" there, such as in the Philippine-American War), by the 1930s, the U. S. policy for the Philippines had changed toward the direction of eventual self-government. Following the invasion and occupation of the Philippines by Japan during World War II, the Philippines gained independence peacefully from the United States in 1946.

However, other U. S. possessions, such as Puerto Rico, did not gain full independence. Puerto Ricans have held U. S. citizenship since 1917, but do not vote in federal elections or pay federal taxes. Puerto Rico achieved self-government in 1952 and became a commonwealth in association with the United States. Puerto Rico was taken off the UN list of non-sovereign territories in 1953 through resolution 748. In 1967, 1993 and 1998, Puerto Rican voters rejected proposals to grant the territory statehood or independence. A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government Nevertheless, the island's political status remains a hot topic of debate.

Japan

As the only Asian nation to become a colonial power during the modern era, Japan had gained several substantial colonial concessions in east Asia such as Taiwan and Korea. Taiwan ( Taiwanese: Tâi-oân/Tāi-oân (historically 大灣/台員/大員/台圓/大圓/台窩灣 is an Island in East Asia. Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. Pursuing a colonial policy comparable to those of European powers, Japan settled significant populations of ethnic Japanese in its colonies while simultaneously suppressing indigenous ethnic populations by enforcing the learning and use of the Japanese language in schools. is a language spoken by over 130 million people in Japan and in Japanese emigrant communities Other methods such as public interaction, and attempts to eradicate the use of Korean and Taiwanese (Min Nan) among the indigenous peoples, were seen to be used. This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system The Southern Min language or Min Nan ( POJ: Bân-lâm-gú or "Southern Fujian" language refers to a family of Chinese languages Dialects Japan also set up the Imperial university in Korea (Keijo Imperial University) and Taiwan (Taihoku University) to compel education. The title Imperial university should literally denote a university established under an Empire, however many universities have adopted the title simply to add a sense of prestige was a Historical Japanese University that existed in Seoul, Korea between 1924 and the End of World War II.

World War II gave Japanese Empire occasion to conquer vast swaths of Asia, sweeping into China and seizing the Western colonies of Vietnam, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Burma, Malaya, Timor and Indonesia among others, albeit only for the duration of the war. The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia. British Malaya loosely described a set of states on the Malay Peninsula that were colonized by the British from the 18th and the 19th until the 20th century Portuguese Timor was the name of East Timor when it was under Portuguese control The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. An estimated 20 million Chinese died during the Japanese occupation of China (1931-1945). The Second Sino-Japanese War ( July 7, 1937 to September 9, 1945) was a major war fought between the Republic of China and the ^[2] Following its surrender to the Allies in 1945, Japan was deprived of all its colonies. In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose Japan further claims that the southern Kuril Islands are a small portion of its own national territory, colonized by the Soviet Union. The Kuril Islands (ˈkʊrɪl or /ˈkjuˈriˈl/ Кури́льские острова́ əstrʌˈva ru-Latn ''Kuril'skie ostrova'' or Kurile Islands in Russia The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

French Decolonization

Further information: French colonial empires

After World War I, the colonized people were frustrated at France's failure to recognize the effort provided by the French colonies (resources, but more importantly colonial troops - the famous tirailleurs). France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world Tirailleur literally means a Sharpshooter in French from tir - target Although in Paris the Great Mosque of Paris was constructed as recognition of these efforts, the French state had no intention to allow self-rule, let alone independence to the colonized people. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The Grande Mosquée de Paris ("Great Mosque of Paris" located in the 5th arrondissement, was founded after World War I as a sign of France Self-governance is an abstract concept that refers to several scales of Organization. Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising Thus, nationalism in the colonies became stronger in between the two wars, leading to Abd el-Krim's Rif War (1921-1925) in Morocco and to the creation of Messali Hadj's Star of North Africa in Algeria in 1925. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Abd el-Krim (c1882 Ajdir &ndash February 6, 1963, Cairo) ( Mulay Abdelkrim, full name Muhammad Ibn 'Abd El-Karim El-Khattabi The Rif War of 1920, also called the Second Moroccan War, was fought between Spain (later assisted by France) and the Moroccan Rif The Capsian culture brought Morocco into the Neolithic about 8000 BC at a time when the Maghreb was less arid than it is today Ahmed Ben Messali Hadj ( Arabic, مصالي الحاج (b 1898 in Algeria, d The Étoile Nord-Africaine or ENA ( French for North African Star) was an early Algerian Nationalist organization Algerian nationalism A new generation of Muslim leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s However, these movements would gain full potential only after World War II. The October 27, 1946 Constitution creating the Fourth Republic substituted the French Union to the colonial empire. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the The French Union (Union française was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial system the " French Empire On the night of March 29, 1947, a nationalist uprising in Madagascar led the French government headed by Paul Ramadier (Socialist) to violent repression: one year of bitter fighting, in which 90,000 to 100,000 Malagasy died. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Malagasy Uprising (or Revolt of Madagascar was an attempted revolution against the French by nationalists on the island of Madagascar between 1947 Paul Ramadier ( 17 March 1888, La Rochelle - 14 October 1961) was a prominent French Socialist politician of On May 8, 1945, the Sétif massacre took place in Algeria. Events 589 - Reccared summons the Third Council of Toledo 1450 - Jack Cade's Rebellion: Kentishmen Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar The Sétif massacre refers to widespread disturbances in and around the Algerian market town of Setif located to the west of Constantine in 1945

In 1946, the states of French Indochina withdrew from the Union, leading to the Indochina War (1946-54) against Ho Chi Minh, who had been a co-founder of the French Communist Party in 1920 and had founded the Vietminh in 1941. First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit The First Indochina War (also known as the French Indochina War, the The Anti-French War, the Franco-Vietnamese War, the Franco-Vietminh War, For the city named after him see Ho Chi Minh City. Hồ Chí Minh (name The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of The Việt Minh (abbreviated from Việt Nam Ðộc Lập Ðồng Minh Hội, English "League for the Independence of Vietnam" was a National liberation In 1956, Morocco and Tunisia gained their independence, while the Algerian War was raging (1954-1962). The Capsian culture brought Morocco into the Neolithic about 8000 BC at a time when the Maghreb was less arid than it is today The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from With Charles de Gaulle's return to power in 1958 amidst turmoil and threats of a right-wing coup d'Etat to protect "French Algeria", the decolonization was completed with the independence of Sub-Saharan Africa's colonies in 1960 and the March 19, 1962 Evian Accords, which put an end to the Algerian war. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the The OAS movement unsuccessfully tried to block the accords with a series of bombings, including an attempted assassination against Charles de Gaulle. The Organisation de l'armée secrète ( OAS &mdash or Organisation armée secrète, lit

To this day, the Algerian war — officially called until the 1990s a "public order operation" — remains a trauma for both France and Algeria. Philosopher Paul Ricœur has spoken of the necessity of a "decolonization of memory", starting with the recognition of the 1961 Paris massacre during the Algerian war and the recognition of the decisive role of African and especially North African immigrant manpower in the Trente Glorieuses post-World War II economic growth period. Paul Ricœur (born February 27, 1913 in Valence France; died May 20, 2005 in Chatenay Malabry, France was a The Paris massacre of 1961 refers to a massacre in Paris on 17 October 1961, during the Algerian War (1954–62 Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term Les Trente Glorieuses ("The Glorious Thirty" refers to the thirty years from 1945-1975 following the end of the Second World War in 1945 in In the 1960s, due to economic needs for post-war reconstruction and rapid economic growth, French employers actively sought to recruit manpower from the colonies, explaining today's multiethnic population. As of January 1, 2008, 64473140 people live in the French Republic.

The Soviet Union and anti-colonialism

The Soviet Union sought to effect the abolishment of colonial governance by Western countries, either by direct subversion of Western-leaning or -controlled governments or indirectly by influence of political leadership and support. Many of the revolutions of this time period were inspired or influenced in this way. The conflicts in Vietnam, Nicaragua, Congo, and Sudan, among others, have been characterized as such. Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa.

Most Soviet leaders expressed the Marxist-Leninist view that imperialism was the height of capitalism, and generated a class-stratified society. Leninism refers to various related political and economic theories elaborated by Bolshevik revolutionary leader Vladimir Lenin. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where It followed, then, that Soviet leadership would encourage independence movements in colonized territories, especially as the Cold War progressed. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the Though this was the view expressed by their leaders, such interventions can be interpreted as the expansion of Soviet interests, not just as aiding the oppressed peoples of the world. Because so many of these wars of independence expanded into general Cold War conflicts, the United States also supported several such independence movements in opposition to Soviet interests.

During the Vietnam War, Communist countries supported anti-colonialist movements in various countries still under colonial administration through propaganda, developmental and economic assistance, and in some cases military aid. Notably among these were the support of armed rebel movements by Cuba in Angola, and the Soviet Union (as well as the People's Republic of China) in Vietnam. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially

It is noteworthy that while Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, and the Netherlands took colonies overseas, the Russian Empire expanded via land across Asia. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The Soviet Union did not make any moves to return this land.

The emergence of the Third World (1945-)

See also: Decolonization of Africa

Czechoslovak anti-colonialist propaganda poster: "Africa - fighting for freedom".

The term "Third World" was coined by French demographer Alfred Sauvy in 1952, on the model of the Third Estate, which, according to the Abbé Sieyès, represented everything, but was nothing: ". Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically Alfred Sauvy (1898-1990 was a demographer, anthropologist and historian of the French economy The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages . . because at the end this ignored, exploited, scorned Third World like the Third Estate, wants to become something too" (Sauvy). The emergence of this new political entity, in the frame of the Cold War, was complex and painful. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the Several tentatives were made to organize newly independent states in order to oppose a common front towards both the US's and the USSR's influence on them, with the consequences of the Sino-Soviet split already at works. The Sino-Soviet split was a gradual divergence of diplomatic ties between the People's Republic of China (PRC and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR Thus, the Non-Aligned Movement constituted itself, around the main figures of Nehru, the leader of India, Sukarno, the Indonesian president, Tito the Communist leader of Yugoslavia, and Nasser, head of Egypt who successfully opposed the French and British imperial powers during the 1956 Suez crisis. The Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM) is an International organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc Jawaharlal Nehru (जवाहरलाल नेहरू ʤəʋäɦəɾläl nɛɦɾu (14 November 1889 27 May 1964 was a major political leader of the Congress Party Sukarno ( June 6, 1901 – June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. See also Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia ( Serbo-Croatian Gamal Abdel Nasser (جمال عبد الناصر Gamāl ‘Abd an-Nāṣir; - January 15 1918 September 28 1970) was the second President This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, (أزمة السويس - العدوان الثلاثي Crise du canal de Suez מבצע קדש Kadesh After the 1954 Geneva Conference which put an end to the French war against Ho Chi Minh in Vietnam, the 1955 Bandung Conference gathered Nasser, Nehru, Tito, Sukarno, the leader of Indonesia, and Zhou Enlai, Premier of the People's Republic of China. The Geneva Conference ( May 8 – July 21, 1954) was a conference between many countries that agreed to end hostilities and restore Peace in For the city named after him see Ho Chi Minh City. Hồ Chí Minh (name Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The first large-scale Asian-African or Afro-Asian Conference — also known as the Bandung Conference — was a meeting of Asian and African states most of which Sukarno ( June 6, 1901 – June 21, 1970) was the first President of Indonesia. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Zhou Enlai ( (5 March 1898 – 8 January 1976 was the first Premier of the People's Republic of China, serving from 1949 until his death in January 1976 The Premier of the State Council ( sometimes incorrectly referred to as the "Prime Minister" is the Chairman of the State Council of the People's Republic of China In 1960, the UN General Assembly voted the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. Membership For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly see General Assembly members The Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples was a milestone in the process of Decolonization. The next year, the Non-Aligned Movement was officially created in Belgrade (1961), and was followed in 1964 by the creation of the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) which tried to promote a New International Economic Order (NIEO). Belgrade (Београд Beograd is the Capital and largest city of Serbia. The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development ( UNCTAD) was established in 1964 as a permanent intergovernmental body The New International Economic Order (NIEO was a set of proposals put forward during the 1970s by developing countries through the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development The NIEO was opposed to the 1944 Bretton Woods system, which had benefited the leading states which had created it, and remained in force until 1971 after the United States' suspension of convertibility from dollars to gold. The Bretton Woods system of monetary management established the rules for commercial and financial relations among the world's major industrial states The main tenets of the NIEO were:

1. Developing countries must be entitled to regulate and control the activities of multinational corporations operating within their territory. Multinational corporation ( MNC) or transnational corporation ( TNC) is a Corporation or enterprise that manages Production or delivers
2. They must be free to nationalize or expropriate foreign property on conditions favourable to them. Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government Expropriation refers to Confiscation of Private property with the stated purpose of establishing social equality. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual
3. They must be free to set up associations of primary commodities producers similar to the OPEC (Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, created on September 17, 1960 to protest pressure by major oil companies (mostly owned by U. A voluntary association or union (also sometimes called a voluntary organization, unincorporated association, or just an association) is a group Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries ( OPEC) is a Cartel of thirteen countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. S. , British, and Dutch nationals) to reduce oil prices and payments to producers. ); all other States must recognize this right and refrain from taking economic, military, or political measures calculated to restrict it. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A right is a legal or moral Entitlement or Permission. Rights are of vital importance in theories of Justice and deontological ethics An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions
4. International trade should be based on the need to ensure stable, equitable, and remunerative prices for raw materials, generalized non-reciprocal and non-discriminatory tariff preferences, as well as transfer of technology to developing countries; and should provide economic and technical assistance without any strings attached. International trade is exchange of Capital, Goods, and Services across International borders or Territories. Remuneration is pay or salary typically Monetary payment for services rendered as in an Employment. Price in Economics and Business is the result of an exchange and from that trade we assign a numerical Monetary value to a good, A raw material is something that is acted upon or used by Organisms, or by human labour or Industry, for use as a Building material to create some product Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary Technology transfer is the process of sharing of skills knowledge technologies methods of manufacturing samples of manufacturing and facilities among industries universities governments Development aid or development cooperation (also development assistance, technical assistance, international aid, overseas aid Conditionality is a concept in International development, Political economy and International relations and describes the use of conditions attached to

The UN Human Development Index (HDI) is a quantitative index of development, alternative to the classic Gross Domestic Product (GDP), which some use as a proxy to define the Third World. The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically While the GDP only calculates economic wealth, the HDI includes life expectancy, public health and literacy as fundamental factors of a good quality of life. Life expectancy is the average number of years of life remaining at a given age Public health is "the science and art of preventing disease prolonging life and promoting health through the organised efforts and informed choices of society organisations traditional definition of literacy is considered to be the ability to read and write or the ability to use Language to read, write, listen, Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people

The UNCTAD however wasn't very effective in implementing this New International Economic Order (NIEO), and social and economic inequalities between industrialized countries and the Third World kept on growing through-out the 1960s until the 21st century. The 1973 oil crisis which followed the Yom Kippur War (October 1973) was triggered by the OPEC which decided an embargo against the US and Western countries, causing a fourfold increase in the price of oil, which lasted five months, starting on October 17, 1973, and ending on March 18 1974. The 1973 oil crisis began on October 17 1973 when the members of Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC consisting of the Arab members of The Yom Kippur War, Ramadan War or October War (מלחמת יום הכיפורים transliterated: Milkhemet Yom HaKipurim or מלחמת יום Events 539 BC - King Cyrus The Great of Persia marches into the city of Babylon, releasing the Jews from almost Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor OPEC nations then agreed, on January 7, 1975, to raise crude oil prices by 10%. Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental At that time, OPEC nations — including many who had recently nationalised their oil industries — joined the call for a New International Economic Order to be initiated by coalitions of primary producers. Concluding the First OPEC Summit in Algiers they called for stable and just commodity prices, an international food and agriculture program, technology transfer from North to South, and the democratization of the economic system. But industrialized countries quickly began to look for substitutes to OPEC petroleum, with the oil companies investing the majority of their research capital in the US and European countries or others, politically sure countries. The OPEC lost more and more influence on the world prices of oil.

The second oil crisis occurred in the wake of the 1979 Iranian Revolution. The 1979 (or second) oil crisis in the United States occurred in the wake of the Iranian Revolution. The Iranian Revolution' (mostly known as the Islamic Revolution, Persian: انقلاب اسلامی Enghelābe Eslāmi was the Revolution that transformed Then, the 1982 Latin American debt crisis exploded in Mexico first, then Argentina and Brazil, which proved unable to pay back their debts, jeopardizing the existence of the international economic system. The Latin American debt crisis was a Financial crisis that occurred in the early 1980s (and for some countries starting in the 1970s often known as the "lost decade" The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld

The 1990s were characterized by the prevalence of the Washington consensus on neoliberal policies, "structural adjustment" and "shock therapies" for the former Communist states. The term Washington Consensus was initially coined in 1989 by John Williamson to describe a set of ten specific economic policy prescriptions that he considered to constitute Originally coined by its critics and opponents " neoliberalism " is a label referring to the recent reemergence of Economic liberalism or Classical liberalism Structural adjustment is a term used to describe the policy changes implemented by the International Monetary Fund (IMF and the World Bank (the Bretton In Economics, shock therapy refers to the sudden release of price and currency controls withdrawal of state subsidies and immediate trade liberalization within a country usually

Modern approaches to decolonization

Though the term "decolonization" is not well received among donors in international development today, the root of the emerging emphasis on projects to promote "democracy, governance and human rights" by international donors and to promote "institution building" and a "[human rights based approach]" to development is really to achieve decolonization. This article is about international development See the closely related concept of development cooperation.

In many independent, post-colonial nations, the systems and cultures of colonialism continue. Weak Parliaments and Ministerial governments (where Ministries issue their own edicts and write laws rather than the Parliament) are holdovers of colonialism since political decisions were made outside the country, Parliaments were at most for show, and the executive branch (then, foreign Governor Generals and foreign civil servants) held local power. Similarly, militaries are strong and civil control over them is weak; a holdover of military control exercised by a foreign military. In some cases, the governing systems in post-colonial countries could be viewed as ruling elites who succeeded in coup d'etats against the foreign colonial regime but never gave up the system of control.

In many countries, the human rights challenges are to empower women and reverse the legacy of missionization that promoted patriarchy and to empower individuals and civil society through changes in education systems that were set up by colonial governments to train obedient servants of colonial regimes. Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over

Often the impact of colonialism is more subtle, with preferences for clothes (such as "blue" shirts of French officials and pith helmets), drugs (alcohol and tobacco that colonial governments introduced, often as a way to tax locals) and other cultural attributes remain.

Some experts in development, such as David Lempert, have suggested an opening of dialogues from the colonial powers on the systems they introduced and the harms that continue as a way of decolonizing in rights policy documents for the UN system and for Europe. David Howard Lempert is an anthropologist, author social entrepreneur and development consultant First World countries often seem reluctant to engage in this form of decolonization, however, since they may benefit from the legacies of colonialism that they created, in contemporary trade and political relations.

Assassinated anticolonialist leaders

A non-exhaustive list of assassinated leaders would include:

• Vasil Levski, Bulgarian leader of the struggle for liberation from Turkish rule, was hanged by the Ottomans in Sofia on February 19, 1873. This is a list of persons who were Assassinated; that is important people who were murdered usually for ideological or political reasons Vasil Levski (Васил Левски also transliterated as Vassil Levski) born Vasil Ivanov Kountchev (Васил Иванов Кунчев ( Karlovo The state of Bulgaria (България transliterated bg-Latn ''Balgaria'' The country preserves the traditions (in ethnic name language and alphabet of the First Bulgarian The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Sofia (София ˈsɔfija is the Capital and largest city of the Republic of Bulgaria, with a population of 1395568 in the Capital Municipality Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum Year 1873 ( MDCCCLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
• Michael Collins, an Irish revolutionary leader and Director of Intelligence for the IRA, was killed in August 1922. Michael John ("Mick" Collins (Mícheál Seán Ó Coileáin 16 October 1890 &ndash 22 August 1922 was an Irish revolutionary leader, Minister for Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world Military intelligence (abbreviated MI int Commonwealth, or intel The Irish Republican Army ( IRA) (Óglaigh na hÉireann was a military organisation descended from the Irish Volunteers, established 25 November 1913 and who
• Roman Shukhevych, leader of the Ukrainian Insurgent Army, killed by the MVD near Lviv on March 5, 1950. Roman Shukhevych (Роман Шухевич also known by his Pseudonym Taras Chuprynka) ( June 30, 1907 — March 5, 1950 The Ukrainian Insurgent Army (Українська Повстанська Армія U krayins’ka P ovstans’ka A rmiya, UPA Lviv ( Ukrainian: Львів, L’viv, Lwów Lemberg Львов L'vov; see also other names) is a major city in western Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian moves from Antioch with an army of 90000 to attack the Sassanid Empire, in a Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• Ruben Um Nyobé, leader of the Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (UPC), killed by the French army on September 13, 1958
• Stepan Bandera, leader of the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists, assassinated in Munich, Germany in 1959 on the orders of Soviet KGB head Alexander Shelepin and Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev. Ruben Um Nyobé ( 1913 - September 13, 1958) was an Anti-imperialist Cameroonian leader slain by the French army on September 13 1958 The Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (Union des Populations du Cameroun is a Political party in Cameroon. Events 509 BC - The Temple of Jupiter on Rome 's Capitoline Hill is dedicated on the ides of September Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Stepan Andriyovych Bandera (Степан Андрійович Бандера ( January 1 1909 &ndash October 15 1959) was a Ukrainian Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists or OUN (Організація Українських Націоналістів Orhanizatsiya Ukrayins’kykh Natsionalistiv Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. KGB ( Transliteration of "КГБ" is the Russian abbreviation of Committee for State Security ( Komityet Gosudarstvennoy Bezopasnosty Alexander Nikolayevich Shelepin (Александр Николаевич Шелепин 18 August 1918, Voronezh - October 24, 1994 Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following ^[3]
• Barthélemy Boganda, leader of a nationalist Central African Republic movement, who died in a plane-crash on March 29, 1959, eight days before the last elections of the colonial era. Barthélemy Boganda (4 April 1910 – 29 March 1959 was the leading nationalist politician of what is now the Central African Republic. Central Africa|Central African FederationThe Central African Republic ( CAR) République Centrafricaine ʀepyblik sɑ̃tʀafʀikɛn or Centrafrique) is a Landlocked Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• Félix-Roland Moumié, successor to Ruben Um Nyobe at the head of the UPC, assassinated in Geneva in 1960 by the SDECE (French secret services). Félix-Roland Moumié was a Cameroonian Marxist leader assassinated in Geneva in 1960 by the SDECE (French secret services with Thalium The Union of the Peoples of Cameroon (Union des Populations du Cameroun is a Political party in Cameroon. Geneva (Genève is the second-most populous city in Switzerland (after Zürich) and is the most populous city of Romandy (the French -speaking The Service de Documentation Extérieure et de Contre-Espionnage ( External Documentation and Counter-Espionage Service, SDECE) was France 's external ^[4]
• Patrice Lumumba, the first Prime Minister of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, was assassinated on January 17, 1961. Patrice Émery Lumumba ( 2 July, 1925 – 17 January, 1961) was an African anti-colonial leader and the first legally elected Prime The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to Events 38 BC - Octavian marries Livia Drusilla. 1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades Minorca Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• Burundi nationalist Louis Rwagasore was assassinated on October 13, 1961, while Pierre Ngendandumwe, Burundi's first Hutu prime minister, was also murdered on January 15, 1965. Burundi (buˈɾundi officially the Republic of Burundi, is a small country in the Great Lakes region of Eastern Africa bordered by Rwanda Prince Louis Rwagasore ( 10 January, 1932 - 13 October, 1961) was a Burundi nationalist and prime minister. Events 54 - Nero ascends to the Roman throne 409 - Vandals and Alans crossed the Pyrenees Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Pierre Ngendandumwe ( 1930 - January 15, 1965) was a Burundian political figure The Events 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon lays siege to Jerusalem under Zedekiah 's reign Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar.
• Sylvanus Olympio, the first president of Togo, was assassinated on January 13, 1963. Sylvanus Epiphanio Olympio ( 6 September 1902 - 13 January 1963) was a Togolese This page contains a list of presidents of Togo. See also Lists of incumbents. Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks Year 1963 ( MCMLXIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. He would be replaced by Gnassingbé Eyadéma, who ruled Togo for nearly forty years; he died in 2005 and was succeeded by his son Faure Gnassingbé. General Gnassingbé Eyadéma, formerly Étienne Eyadéma ( December 26, 1937 – February 5 2005) was the President of Faure Essozimna Gnassingbé (born June 6, 1966) has been the President of Togo since May 4, 2005; he was previously
• Mehdi Ben Barka, the leader of the Moroccan National Union of Popular Forces (UNPF) and of the Tricontinental Conference, which was supposed to prepare in 1966 in Havana its first meeting gathering national liberation movements from all continents — related to the Non-Aligned Movement, but the Tricontinal Conference gathered liberation movements while the Non-Aligned were for the most part states — was "disappeared" in Paris in 1965. Mehdi Ben Barka (born 1920 – Disappeared October 29, 1965) (المهدي بن بركة was a Moroccan politician, head of the left-wing The Capsian culture brought Morocco into the Neolithic about 8000 BC at a time when the Maghreb was less arid than it is today The National Union of Popular Forces ( French language, Union Nationale des Forces Populaires, UNFP) was founded in 1959 in Morocco by Mehdi The Organization of Solidarity with the People of Asia Africa and Latin America (Organización de Solidaridad con los Pueblos de Asia África y América Latina, abbreviated Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading The Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM) is an International organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc A forced disappearance occurs when an organization forces a person to vanish from Public view either by Murder or by simple Sequestration.
• Nigerian leader Ahmadu Bello was assassinated in January 1966. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal Al- Haji Sir Ahmadu Bello (1910 - 1966 was a Nigerian Politician, and was the first Premier of the Northern Nigeria region from 1954-1966
• Eduardo Mondlane, the leader of FRELIMO and the father of Mozambican independence, was assassinated in 1969, allegedly by Aginter Press, the Portuguese branch of Gladio, NATO's paramilitary organization during the Cold War. Eduardo Chivambo Mondlane ( June 20 1920 - February 23 1969) served as President of the Mozambican Liberation Front (FRELIMO from 1962 The Liberation Front of Mozambique, better known by the acronym FRELIMO, from the Portuguese Frente de Libertação de Moçambique (IPA /fɾeˈlimo/ Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa Gladio ( Italian, from Latin Gladius, meaning Sword) is a code name denoting the clandestine NATO " Stay-behind The North Atlantic Treaty ^[5]
• Pan-Africanist Tom Mboya was killed on July 5, 1969. Pan-Africanism is a Sociopolitical World view, and Philosophy, as well as a movement which seeks to unify both Native Africans and those of Thomas Joseph Odhiambo Mboya ( August 15, 1930 - July 5, 1969) was a prominent Kenyan politician during Jomo Kenyatta 's government Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England. Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• Abeid Karume, first president of Zanzibar, was assassinated in April 1972. Sheikh Abeid Amani Karume (1905&ndash April 7 1972) was the first President of Zanzibar Zanzibar ( is part of the East African republic of Tanzania. It consists of the Zanzibar Archipelago in the
• Amílcar Cabral was murdered on January 20, 1973. Amílcar Lopes Cabral ( September 12, 1924 – January 20, 1973) was an African agronomic engineer, writer Marxist Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar.
• Outel Bono, Chadian opponent of François Tombalbaye, was assassinated on August 26, 1973, making yet another example of the existence of the Françafrique, designing by this term post-independent neocolonial ties between France and its former colonies. Outel Bono (died 26 August 1973) was a Chadian medical doctor and politician Chad ( Arabic: تشاد; French: Tchad) officially the Republic of Chad, is a Landlocked country in Central Africa François Tombalbaye, also called Ngarta Tombalbaye ( June 15, 1918 &ndash April 13, 1975) was a teacher and a Trade union Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 1973 ( MCMLXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the 1973 Gregorian calendar. Françafrique is a term that refers to France 's relationship with Africa.
• Herbert Chitepo, leader of the Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), was assassinated on March 18, 1975. Herbert Wiltshire Chitepo ( 15 June, 1923 &ndash 18 March, 1975) led the Zimbabwe African National Union until the Central The Zimbabwe African National Union was a militant organization that fought against White minority rule in Rhodesia, formed as a split from the Zimbabwe African Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
• Óscar Romero, prelate archbishop of San Salvador and proponent of liberation theology, was assassinated on March 24, 1980
• Dulcie September, leader of the African National Congress (ANC), who was investigating an arms trade between France and South Africa, was murdered in Paris on March 29, 1988, a few years before the end of the apartheid regime. Óscar Arnulfo Romero y Galdámez ( August 25 1917 &ndash March 24 1980) commonly known as Monseñor Romero, was a Bishop A prelate is a high-ranking member of the Clergy who either is an Ordinary or ranks in precedence with ordinaries In Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated Bishop. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion and others this means that they lead San Salvador is the Capital and largest city of the nation of El Salvador. Liberation theology is a school of Theology within Christianity, particularly in the Roman Catholic Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Dulcie Evonne September ( August 20, 1935 &ndash March 29, 1988) was a South African Anti-apartheid Political activist The African National Congress (ANC has been South Africa 's governing party supported by its Tripartite alliance with the Congress of South African Trade Unions The arms industry is a global Industry and Business which Manufactures and sells Weapons and Military technology and equipment. Events 1461 - Wars of the Roses: Battle of Towton - Edward of York defeats Queen Margaret to become King Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar)

Many of these assassinations are still unsolved cases as of 2007, but foreign power interference is undeniable in many of these cases — although others were for internal matters. To take only one case, the investigation concerning Mehdi Ben Barka is continuing to this day, and both France and the United States have refused to declassify files they acknowledge having in their possession^[6] The Phoenix Program, a CIA program of assassination during the Vietnam War, should also be named. The Phoenix Program ( Vietnamese: Chiến dịch Phượng Hoàng, a word related to Fenghuang, the Chinese phoenix) was a military AssassiNation is the sixth album by Krisiun, released in 2006 on Century Media. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia

Post-colonial organizations

Five international organizations whose membership largely follows the pattern of previous colonial empires.

Due to a common history and culture, former colonial powers created institutions which more loosely associated their former colonies. Membership is voluntary, and in some cases can be revoked if a member state loses some objective criteria (usually a requirement for democratic governance). The organizations serve cultural, economic, and political purposes between the associated countries, although no such organization has become politically prominent as an entity in its own right.

Differing perspectives

There is quite a bit of controversy over decolonisation. A Commonwealth realm is any one of 16 sovereign states within the Commonwealth of Nations that each have Elizabeth II as their respective Monarch An associated state is the minor partner in a formal free relationship between a political territory with a degree of statehood and a (usually larger nation for which no other specific The French Union (Union française was a political entity created by the French Fourth Republic to replace the old French colonial system the " French Empire The French Community (Communauté française was the political entity which replaced in 1958 the French Union, which in turn was the descendant of the French colonial La Francophonie is an international organisation of French-speaking countries and governments and in French, the community of French-speaking peoples The Latin Union is an International organization of nations that use a Romance language. The Organization of Ibero-American States (Organização dos Estados Ibero-americanos Spanish: Organización de Estados Iberoamericanos; formally The Organization The Community of Portuguese Language Countries ( Comunidade dos Países de Língua Portuguesa, pron. This article is about US insular areas For US States that designate themselves as "Commonwealths" see Commonwealth (United States. The Compact of Free Association ( COFA) defines the relationship that three sovereign states—the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM the Republic of the Marshall The ACP States are the countries that are signatories of the Lomé Convention. See also Dutch orthography List of language academies The end goal tends to be universally regarded as good, but there has been much debate over the best way to grant full independence.

Decolonization and political instability

Some say the post–World War II decolonisation movement was too rushed, especially in Africa, and resulted in the creation of unstable regimes in the newly independent countries. Thus causing war between and within the new independent nation-states.

Others argue that this instability is largely the result of problems from the colonial period, including arbitrary nation-state borders, lack of training of local populations and disproportional economy. An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area However by the 20th century most colonial powers were slowly being forced by the moral beliefs of population to consider the welfare of their colonial subjects.

Economic effects

Effects on the colonizers

John Kenneth Galbraith argues that the post-World War II decolonization was brought about for economic reasons. An economy is the realized social system of production exchange distribution and consumption of goods and services of a country or other area In A Journey Through Economic Time, he writes, "The engine of economic well-being was now within and between the advanced industrial countries. Domestic economic growth — as now measured and much discussed — came to be seen as far more important than the erstwhile colonial trade. Economic growth is the increase in the amount of the goods and services produced by an economy over time . . The economic effect in the United States from the granting of independence to the Philippines was unnoticeable, partly due to the Bell Trade Act, which allowed American monopoly in the economy of the Philippines. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The Bell Trade Act of 1946, also known as the Philippine Trade Act was an act passed by the United States Congress specifying the economic conditions governing The departure of India and Pakistan made small economic difference in Britain. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Dutch economists calculated that the economic effect from the loss of the great Dutch empire in Indonesia was compensated for by a couple of years or so of domestic post-war economic growth. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The end of the colonial era is celebrated in the history books as a triumph of national aspiration in the former colonies and of benign good sense on the part of the colonial powers. Lurking beneath, as so often happens, was a strong current of economic interest — or in this case, disinterest. "

Part of the reason for the lack of economic impact felt by the colonizer upon the release of the colonized was that costs and benefits were not eliminated, but shifted. The colonizer no longer had the burden of obligation, financial or otherwise, to their colony. The colonizer continued to be able to obtain cheap goods and labor as well as economic benefits (see Suez Canal Crisis) from the former colonies. The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, (أزمة السويس - العدوان الثلاثي Crise du canal de Suez מבצע קדש Kadesh Financial, political and military pressure could still be used to achieve goals desired by the colonizer. The most obvious difference is the ability of the colonizer to disclaim responsibility for the colonized.

Effects on the former colonies

Further information: Third World debt

Settled populations

Decolonization is not an easy matter in colonies where a large population of settlers lives, particularly if they have been there for several generations. Developing countries' debt is External debt incurred by the governments of Third World countries, generally in quantities beyond the governments' political This population, in general, may have to be repatriated, often losing considerable property. For instance, the decolonisation of Algeria by France was particularly uneasy due to the large European and Sephardic Jewish population (see also pied noir), which largely evacuated to France when Algeria became independent. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje In Zimbabwe, former Rhodesia, president Robert Mugabe has, starting in the 1990s, targeted white farmers and forcibly seized their property. See also Great Zimbabwe National Monument. For information about the March and June 2008 presidential elections see Zimbabwean presidential election Rhodesia was the name adopted when the formerly British colony of Southern Rhodesia declared itself independent ( Unilateral Declaration of Independence In some cases, decolonisation is hardly possible or impossible because of the importance of the settler population or where the indigenous population is now in the minority; such is the case of the British population of the Cayman Islands, the Russian population of Kazakhstan, the Chinese population of Singapore as well as the immigrant communities of USA and Canada. The Cayman Islands are a British overseas territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, comprising the islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Singapore

Charts of the independences

Further information: Independence Day

In this chronological overview, not every date is indisputably the decisive moment. An Independence Day is an annual celebration commemorating the Anniversary of a Nation 's assumption of independent Statehood, usually after ceasing Often, the final phase, independence, is mentioned here, though there may be years of autonomy before, e. g. as an Associated State under the British crown. For such details, see each national history.

Furthermore, note that some cases have been included that were not strictly colonized but rather protectorate, co-dominium, lease. . . Changes subsequent to decolonization are usually not included; nor is the dissolution of the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

18th and 19th centuries

Inter-War Period

From World War II to the present

Decolonization in coming years

French sphere

The largest territory is French Guyana in South America although this is unlikely to be decolonized soon. French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a Of all the territories in the French sphere, New Caledonia in the Pacific are likely to be decolonized earliest. For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. Further east in the Pacific, some inhabitants of what is currently French Polynesia centered on the island of Tahiti also hope for decolonization. French Polynesia ( French: Polynésie française, Tahitian: Pōrīnetia Farāni) is a French Overseas collectivity in the Tahiti is the largest Island in the Windward group of French Polynesia, located in the Archipelago of Society Islands in the There are also many remaining French islands in the Caribbean and the Indian Ocean which may one day be decolonized. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface

British sphere

The oldest colony in the New World is Bermuda in the Atlantic and it is a candidate for decolonization. Ba (officially The Bermuda Islands or The Somers Isles) is a British overseas territory in the North Atlantic Ocean. Other candidates include islands in the Caribbean like the Cayman Islands currently under British sovereignty. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The Cayman Islands are a British overseas territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, comprising the islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac The Falkland Islands is unlikely to be decolonized as territory being handed to Argentina as Hong Kong was handed to China and consideration of independence is premature given its present small population. Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders British Indian Ocean Territory may one day be handed to Mauritius although this is unlikely to happen without consultation with the U. Mauritius (pronounced məˈrɪʃəs L’île Maurice /il mɔ'ʁis/ Mauritian Creole: Maurice) officially the Republic of Mauritius, République S. which would still want use of the military base. The population of Gibraltar, apprehensive about Spain's intentions, are not keen for decolonization. Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula.

U. S. sphere

The candidate territories are mainly in the Pacific such as Guam and American Samoa. Guam ( Chamorro: cha Guåhån) officially the Territory of Guam, is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized unincorporated American Samoa (Amerika Sāmoa or sm ''Sāmoa Amelika'' is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean, southeast American Samoa may be decolonized and form an autonomous region within independent Samoa. Samoa, officially the Independent State of Samoa, is a country governing the western part of the Samoan Islands Archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean Other candidate territories are in the Caribbean such as U.S. Virgin Islands which once independent could form a confederation with the British Virgin Islands if the latter is decolonized. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The United States Virgin Islands is a group of Islands in the Caribbean that are an Insular area of the United States. The British Virgin Islands ( BVI) is a British overseas territory, located in the Caribbean to the east of Puerto Rico.

Russian sphere

It is debatable whether any territory along the southern border of the Russian Federation will succeed in their independence struggle.

References

See also

• Neocolonialism
• Imperialism
• Partition (politics)
• Separatism
• Secession