| República de Cuba Republic of Cuba | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
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| Motto: Patria o Muerte (Spanish) "Fatherland or Death" a | ||||||
| Anthem: La Bayamesa ("The Bayamo Song") | ||||||
 | ||||||
| Capital (and largest city) | Havana | |||||
| Official languages | Spanish | |||||
| Ethnic groups | 65. The flag of Cuba was adopted on May 20, 1902, containing a field with five blue and white stripes and a red triangle at the hoist with a white 5-pointed The Cuban Coat of Arms is the official Heraldic symbol of Cuba. A motto (from the Italian word motto, meaning witticism sentence is a phrase meant to formally describe the general motivation or intention of a social group A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history traditions and struggles of its people recognized either by a nation's El Himno de Bayamo is the National anthem of Cuba. It was first performed during the Battle of Bayamo in 1868 Cuba is a Multiracial society with a population of mainly Spanish ancestry Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory 05% European (Spanish, some French, Italian, Portuguese). The European peoples are the various Nations and Ethnic groups of Europe. Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion ( The' Italian people' are a Southern European Ethnic group located primarily in Italy, Switzerland, France and by virtue of a wide-ranging The Portuguese people (os Portugueses literally the Portuguese) are the Ethnic group or Nation native to the country of Portugal, in the west 10. 08% African. The term black people usually refers to a racial group of Humans with dark Skin color, but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse 23. 84% Mulatto. Mulatto is a term used to describe a person with one white parent and one black parent or a person whose Ancestry is a mixture of black and white 1. 03% Chinese | |||||
| Demonym | Cuban | |||||
| Government | Socialist Republicb | |||||
| - | President | Raúl Castro | ||||
| - | First Vice President | José Ramón Machado Ventura | ||||
| Independence | from Spain | |||||
| - | Declaredc | October 10, 1868 | ||||
| - | Republic declared | May 20, 1902 from United States | ||||
| - | Cuban Revolution | January 1, 1959 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 110,861 km² (105th) 42,803 sq mi | ||||
| - | Water (%) | negligible | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2007 estimate | 11,394,043[1] (73rd) | ||||
| - | 2002 census | 11,177,743 | ||||
| - | Density | 102/km² (97th) 264/sq mi | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2006 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $46. A Chinese Cuban ( Cantonese Jyutping: Gu2 Baa1 Waa4 jan4 Spanish: chino-cubano) is a Cuban of Chinese Ancestry A demonym or gentilic is a word that denotes the members of a People or the inhabitants of a place Cubans (Cubanos are people inhabiting or originating from Cuba. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. The term socialist state (or socialist republic, or workers' state) can carry one of several different (but related meanings In strictly speaking any The Council of State (Consejo de Estado of Cuba is a 31 member body of the government of Cuba elected by the National Assembly of People’s Power. Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz (born June 3 1931 is the President of the Cuban Council of State and the Head of state of Cuba. The Council of State (Consejo de Estado of Cuba is a 31 member body of the government of Cuba elected by the National Assembly of People’s Power. José Ramón Machado Ventura MD (born 26 October 1930) is the First Vice-President of the Council of State in Cuba. Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Year 1868 ( MDCCCLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held Year 1902 ( MCMII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of the United States proxy ruler General Fulgencio Batista 's regime on January 1, New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Area is a Quantity expressing the two- Dimensional size of a defined part of a Surface, typically a region bounded by a closed Curve. To help compare Orders of magnitude of different geographical regions we list here Surface areas between 100000 km² and 1000000 km² This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a Fraction of 100 ( per cent meaning "per hundred" In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume List of countries and dependencies by Population density in inhabitants/km² The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. 22 billion (2006 est. )[2] (not ranked) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $4,500 (2007 est. There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' )[2] (not ranked) | ||||
| HDI (2007) | 0. This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP at Purchasing power parity (PPP Per capita The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP 838[3] (high) (51st) | |||||
| Currency | Cuban peso (CUP)Convertible peso d ( CUC) | |||||
| Time zone | EST (UTC-5) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | (Starts March 11; ends November 4) (UTC-4) | ||||
| Internet TLD | .cu | |||||
| Calling code | +53 | |||||
| a As shown on the obverse of the 1992 coin[4] (Note that the Spanish word "Patria" is feminine and is translated into English as either "Cradle" or "Place of Birth" or "Homeland". This is a list of countries by Human Development Index as included in the United Nations Development Program 's Human Development Report 2007 A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The peso ( ISO 4217 code CUP, sometimes called the "national peso" is one of two official currencies in use in Cuba, the other being the ISO 4217 is the International standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies established The convertible peso (sometimes given as CUC$) (informally called a chavito) is one of two official currencies in Cuba, the other being the peso ISO 4217 is the International standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies established The Eastern Time Zone ( ET) of the Western Hemisphere falls mostly along the east coast of North America and the west coast of South America Daylight saving time ( DST Events 1425 BC - Thutmose III, Pharaoh of Egypt, dies (according to the Low Chronology of the 18th Dynasty Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani A country This is a list of country calling codes defined by ITU-T recommendation E ) b[5] states that "Cuba is an independent and sovereign socialist state [Article 1]. . . the name of the Cuban state is Republic of Cuba [Article 2]. " The usage "socialist republic" to describe the style of government of Cuba is nearly uniform, though forms of government have no universally agreed typology. For example, Atlapedia[6] describes it as "Unitary Socialist Republic"; Encyclopædia Britannica[7] omits the word "unitary", as do most sources. c At the start of the Ten Years' War. The Ten Years' War ( Guerra de los Diez Años, (1868-1878 also known as the Great War, began on October 10 1868 when sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes d From 1993 to 2004, the U.S. dollar was used in addition to the peso until the dollar was replaced by the convertible peso. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been | ||||||
The Republic of Cuba (IPA: /ˈkjuːbə/, Spanish: Cuba or República de Cuba Spanish pronunciation: [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈkuβa]), consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles), Isla de la Juventud and several adjacent small islands. The Greater Antilles is one of three island groups in the Caribbean. Isla de la Juventud (lit Isle of Youth; until 1978 named Isla de Pinos – Pine Island is the second-largest Cuban Island and the sixth-largest Cuba is located in the northern Caribbean at the confluence of the Caribbean Sea, the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting For the region see Caribbean. The Caribbean Sea (kəˈrɪbiən or /ˌkærɨˈbiːən/ is a tropical Sea in the Western Hemisphere The Gulf of Mexico ( Spanish: Golfo de México) is the ninth largest Body of water in the world Cuba is south of the eastern United States and The Bahamas, west of the Turks and Caicos Islands and Haiti and east of Mexico. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Bahamas, officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas, is an independent sovereign English -speaking country consisting of two thousand Cays and The Turks and Caicos Islands ( TCI) (ˈtɜːks ænd ˈkeɪkəs are a British Overseas Territory consisting of two groups of tropical islands in the West Indies Haiti ( English: ˈheɪ·tiː or haɪ·ˈjiː·tiː French Haïti a·i·ti Haitian Creole: The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The Cayman Islands and Jamaica are to the south. The Cayman Islands are a British overseas territory located in the western Caribbean Sea, comprising the islands of Grand Cayman, Cayman Brac Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. The national flower is Hedychium coronarium J. The White ginger lily ( Hedychium coronarium) is originally from the Himalayas region of Nepal and India where it is known as dolan champa दोलन Koenig, most often known as "flor de mariposa" (Butterfly Flower) and the national bird is "Tocororo" or Cuban Trogon from the family of Trogonidae. UserPolbot. -->The Cuban Trogon ( Priotelus temnurus) is a species of Bird in the Trogonidae The trogons and quetzals are Birds in the order Trogoniformes which contains only one family the Trogonidae. [8]
Cuba is the most populous insular nation in the Caribbean. Its people, culture and customs draw from several sources including the aboriginal Taíno and Ciboney peoples, the period of Spanish colonialism, the introduction of African slaves, and its proximity to the United States. Cubans (Cubanos are people inhabiting or originating from Cuba. The culture of Cuba is a complex mixture of different often contrasting factors and influences The Taínos were pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. The Ciboney were Pre-Columbian indigenous inhabitants of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries Slavery in the Spanish colonies began with local Natives Initially the Spanish set Encomiendas on natives and maintained the mita The name "Cuba" comes from the Taíno language the exact meaning of which is unclear, but may be translated either "where fertile land is abundant" (cubao[9]) or "great place" (coabana[10]). The island has a tropical climate that is moderated by the surrounding waters; however, the warm temperatures of the Caribbean Sea and the fact that the island of Cuba sits across the access to the Gulf of Mexico combine to make Cuba prone to frequent hurricanes. A tropical climate is a kind of Climate typical in the Tropics. A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous Thunderstorms that produce strong winds and Flooding Cuba's main island, at 766 miles (1,233 km) long, is the world's 17th largest.
History
The recorded history of Cuba began on 12 October 1492, when Christopher Columbus sighted the island during his first voyage of discovery and claimed it for Spain. Cuba, the largest of the Caribbean islands was first inhabited by Indigenous peoples known as the Taíno and Ciboney. The history of Cuba could be divided into four general time periods Events 539 BC - The army of Cyrus the Great of Persia takes Babylon. Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. [11] Columbus named the island Isla Juana in reference to Prince Juan, the heir apparent. Infante don Juan de Trastamara de Aragon y de Trastamara de Castilla, ( 28 June 1478 in Seville&ndash 4 October 1497) Prince of [12] The island had been inhabited by Native American peoples known as the Taíno and Ciboney whose ancestors had come from South America and possibly North and Central America in a complex series of migrations at least several centuries before, and perhaps 6,000 to 8,000 years ago. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. The Taínos were pre-Columbian inhabitants of the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and the northern Lesser Antilles. The Ciboney were Pre-Columbian indigenous inhabitants of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean Sea. [13] The Taíno were farmers and the Ciboney (far more commonly written Siboney in neo-Taino nations) were both farmers and hunter-gatherers; some have suggested that copper trade was significant and mainland artifacts[14] have been found. Neo-taino nations are defined here as the assorted nations of the Caribbean islands that together with the Tainos were described on the arrival of European chroniclers or which arose after this A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting
The coast of Cuba was fully mapped by Sebastián de Ocampo in 1511, and in that year the first Spanish settlement was founded by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar at Baracoa. Sebastián de Ocampo was a Spanish Navigator and Explorer. He is believed to have been the first navigator to have circumnavigated the island of Cuba The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries For the Spanish painter see Diego Velázquez. Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar (1465 Cuéllar, Baracoa is a municipality and city in Guantánamo Province in extreme eastern Cuba. Other towns including the future capital of the island San Cristobal de la Habana (founded in 1515) soon followed. San Cristobal de la Habana is the name of a Cuban Cigar brand produced in Cuba for Habanos SA, the Cuban state-owned tobacco company The Spanish, as they did throughout the Americas, oppressed and enslaved the approximately 100,000 indigenous people that resisted conversion to Christianity on the island. Within a century they had all but disappeared as a distinct nation as a result of the combined effects of European-introduced disease, forced labor and other mistreatment, though aspects of the region's aboriginal heritage have survived. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical Most scholars now believe that, among the various contributing factors, infectious disease was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the indigenous people. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic [15][16]
Colonial Cuba
Cuba was in Spanish possession for almost 400 years (circa 1511-1898). Its economy was based on plantation agriculture, mining and the export of sugar, coffee and tobacco to Europe and later to North America. Fundamentally a plantation is usually a large Farm or estate, especially in a tropical or semitropical country on which Cotton, Tobacco Agriculture in Cuba has played an important part in the economy for several hundred years Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Havana was seized by the British in 1762, but restored to Spain the following year. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Spanish population was boosted by settlers leaving Haiti when that territory was ceded to France. Haiti ( English: ˈheɪ·tiː or haɪ·ˈjiː·tiː French Haïti a·i·ti Haitian Creole: This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. As in other parts of the Spanish Empire, the small land-owning elite of Spanish-descended settlers held social and economic power, supported by a population of Spaniards born on the island and called Criollos by the Iberian born Spaniards, other Europeans and African-descended slaves. The Spanish Empire (Imperio Español was one of the largest Empires in history and one of the first Global empires In the 15th and 16th centuries Criollo is a term that dates back to the Spanish colonial Casta system ( Caste system) of Latin America
In the 1820s, when the other parts of Spain's empire in Latin America rebelled and formed independent states, Cuba remained loyal, although there was some agitation for independence. Due to Cuba's loyalty to the Spanish government, the Spanish Crown gave the following motto to the island government "La Siempre Fidelisima Isla" (The Always Most Faithful Island). This was partly because the prosperity of Cuban settlers depended on trade with Europe, partly through fears of a slave rebellion (as had happened in Haiti) if the Spanish withdrew, and partly because the Cubans feared the rising power of the United States more than they disliked Spanish rule. A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves. Slave rebellions have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery and are amongst the most feared events
An additional factor was the continuous migration of Spaniards to Cuba from all social strata, a trend that had ceased in other Spanish possessions decades earlier and which contributed to the slow development of a Cuban national identity. Pirates were also still a problem and defense against them depended heavily on the presence of Spanish troops. [17]
Cuba's proximity to the U. S. has been a powerful influence on its history. Throughout the 19th century, Southern politicians in the U. S. plotted the island's annexation as a means of strengthening the pro-slavery forces in the U. S. , and there was usually a party in Cuba which supported such a policy. In 1848, a pro-annexation rebellion was defeated and there were several attempts by annexation forces to invade the island from Florida. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the There were also regular proposals in the U. S. to buy Cuba from Spain. During the summer of 1848, President James K. Polk quietly authorized his ambassador to Spain, Romulus Mitchell Saunders, to negotiate the purchase of Cuba and offer Spain up to $100 million. James Knox Polk ( November 2 1795&ndashJune 15 1849 was the eleventh President of the United States, serving from March 4 1845 to March 4 1849 Romulus Mitchell Saunders ( 3 March 1791 – 21 April 1867) was an American politician from North Carolina. While an astonishing sum at the time for one territory, trade in sugar and molasses from Cuba exceeded $18,000,000 in 1838 alone. [18] Spain, however, refused to consider ceding one of its last possessions in the Americas.
After the American Civil War apparently ended the threat of pro-slavery annexation, agitation for Cuban independence from Spain revived, leading to a rebellion in 1868 led by Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, a wealthy lawyer landowner from Oriente province who freed his slaves, proclaimed a war and was named president of the Cuban Republic-in-arms. Causes of the war See also Origins of the American Civil War, Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War The coexistence of a slave-owning South Carlos Manuel de Céspedes (born Carlos Manuel de Céspedes del Castillo on April 18 1819 in Bayamo, in Oriente, province of Cuba, —February This resulted in a prolonged conflict known as the Ten Years' War between pro-independence forces and the Spanish army, allied with local supporters. The Ten Years' War ( Guerra de los Diez Años, (1868-1878 also known as the Great War, began on October 10 1868 when sugar mill owner Carlos Manuel de Céspedes There was much sympathy in the U. S. for the independence cause, but the U. S. declined to intervene militarily or to recognize the legitimacy of the Cuban government in arms, even though many European and Latin American nations had done so. [19] In 1878, the Pact of Zanjón ended the conflict, with Spain promising greater autonomy to Cuba. The Pact of Zanjón was the treaty that ended the Cuban Ten Years' War.
The island was exhausted after this long conflict and pro-independence agitation temporarily died down. There was also a prevalent fear that if the Spanish withdrew or if there were further civil strife, the increasingly expansionist U. S. would step in and annex the island. In 1879-1880, Cuban patriot Calixto Garcia attempted to start another war, known in Cuban history as the Little War, but received little support. The Little War or Small War (Guerra Chiquita (1879&ndash1880 was the second of three conflicts in the Cuban War of Independence. [20] Partly in response to U. S. pressure, slavery was abolished in 1886, although the African-descended minority remained socially and economically oppressed, despite formal civic equality granted in 1893. During this period, rural poverty in Spain provoked by the Spanish Revolution of 1868 and its aftermath led to even greater Spanish emigration to Cuba.
During the 1890s, pro-independence agitation revived, fueled by resentment of the restrictions imposed on Cuban trade by Spain and hostility to Spain's increasingly oppressive and incompetent administration of Cuba. Few of the promises for economic reform made by the Spanish government in the Pact of Zanjon were kept. In April 1895, a new war was declared, led by the writer and poet José Martí who had organized the war over 10 years while in exile in the U. José Julián Martí Pérez ( January 28, 1853 &ndash May 19, 1895) Born in Havana from Spanish parents his short life was dedicated to gaining S. and proclaimed Cuba an independent republic — Martí was killed at Dos Rios shortly after landing in Cuba with the eastern expeditionary force. His death immortalized him and he has become Cuba's national hero.
The Spanish armed forces totaled about 200,000 troops against a much smaller rebel army which relied mostly on guerilla and sabotage tactics to fight battles, and the Spaniards retaliated with a campaign of suppression. General Valeriano Weyler was appointed military governor of Cuba, and as a repressive measure he herded the rural population into what he called reconcentrados, described by international observers as "fortified towns. Valeriano Weyler Nicolau marqués de Tenerife ( 17 September 1838 - 20 October 1930) was a Spanish soldier Valeriano Weyler Nicolau marqués de Tenerife ( 17 September 1838 - 20 October 1930) was a Spanish soldier " These reconcentrados are often considered the prototype for the 20th century concentration camps. [21] Between 200,000 and 400,000 Cuban civilians died from starvation and disease during this period in the camps. These numbers were verified by the Red Cross and U. S. Senator (and former Secretary of War) Redfield Proctor. Redfield Proctor ( June 1, 1831 March 4, 1908) was a US Politician of the Republican Party. U. S. and European protests against Spanish conduct on the island followed. [22]
Military events of consequence include the breakout to the western provinces "La Invasion", and the taking of the fort complexes at Tunas and Guisa.
In 1897, fearing U. S. intervention, Spain moved to a more conciliatory policy, promising home rule with an elected legislature. The rebels rejected this offer and the war for independence continued.
The Maine incident
The U. "The Maine" redirects here For the pop punk band see The Maine (band. S. battleship Maine, the largest Navy ship built in an American shipyard, arrived in Havana on January 25, 1898. A battleship is a large heavily armored Warship with a main battery consisting of the largest Calibre of Guns Battleships were "The Maine" redirects here For the pop punk band see The Maine (band. Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate Year 1898 ( MDCCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Spanish and their Cuban supporters saw the uninvited arrival as intimidation, though McKinley claimed it was to offer protection to the 8,000 American residents in the island.
On 15 February the Maine exploded in Havana harbor, killing 266 men. Events 590 - Khosrau II is crowned as king of Persia 1637 - Ferdinand III becomes Holy Roman Emperor Forces in the U. S. blamed the Spanish for blowing up the Maine.
Those skeptical of the U. S. accusations were suspicious because the most important officers were at a party on shore. There were 81 foreigners and 82 black seamen among the 25 officers and 318 enlisted killed.
An investigative commission arrived in Havana on February 21 aboard USS Mangrove where Judge Advocate of the Navy Adolf Marix reported the ship had been sunk by a mine placed under the ship by a diver named Pepe "Taco" Barquin. Events 362 - Athanasius returns to Alexandria. 1245 - Thomas, the first known Bishop of Finland The Judge Advocate General's Corps also known as the "JAG Corps" or " JAG " is the legal arm of the US Navy. A naval mine is a self-contained Explosive device placed in water to destroy Ships or Submarines Unlike Depth charges mines are deposited Marix reported Barquin had been offered $6,000 and was killed the day after. Another diver was killed by guards and another wounded and jailed on the night of the explosion. The one in jail (his arrest was recorded in Regla's official documents), Marix reported, was being poisoned by the Spanish authorities. [23]
A naval court of inquiry found on March 22, 1898, after examination of the ship, "In the opinion of the court, the Maine was destroyed by the explosion of a submarine mine, which caused the partial explosion of two or more of her forward magazines. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. Year 1898 ( MDCCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common "[24] Although the court also concluded, "The court has been unable to obtain evidence fixing the responsibility for the destruction of the Maine upon any person or persons",[24] the inference was widely drawn that if there was a submarine mine, the Spanish government had probably caused that mine to be laid. Swept on a wave of nationalist sentiment, the U. S. Congress passed a resolution calling for intervention[25] and President William McKinley was quick to comply. William McKinley Jr ( January 29, 1843 September 14, 1901) was the twenty-fifth President of the United States, and the last
According to a letter from Brigadier Freyre de Andrade, the chief planners were Garcia Corujedo, Villasuso, Maribona and other Freemason businessmen, associated with gun runner Maximo Gomez and New York politician William Astor Chanler, a friend of Theodore Roosevelt. Máximo Gómez y Báez ( November 18, 1836 in the Dominican Republic - June 17, 1905 in Havana Cuba) was a Userpolbot from http//bioguidecongressgov/scripts/biodisplaypl?index=C000303 Theodore Roosevelt (ˈroʊzəvɛlt October 27 1858 January 6 1919 also known as T
Commonly authors find the matter far less definitive and assignment of guilt less clear. [26] McMorrow states: "Thus, the conclusion that the explosion which destroyed the ship was triggered by an external blast, as reached by both the Sampson and Vreeland inquiries, seems to be a valid one. Having reached that same conclusion, we still don't know what actually caused the blast. Was the Maine destroyed by a Spanish mine, as so many believed in 1898, by sabotage, or by some kind of infernal machine?"[27]
Independence
Theodore Roosevelt, who had fought in the Spanish-American War and had some sympathies with the independence movement, succeeded McKinley as President of the United States in 1901 and abandoned the 20-year treaty proposal. Theodore Roosevelt (ˈroʊzəvɛlt October 27 1858 January 6 1919 also known as T Instead, the Republic of Cuba gained formal independence on 20 May 1902, with the independence leader Tomás Estrada Palma becoming the country's first president. Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held Year 1902 ( MCMII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Tomás Estrada y Palma ( Bayamo, July 9, 1832 – Santiago de Cuba, November 4, 1908) was a Cuban Political Under the new Cuban constitution, however, the U. S. retained the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and to supervise its finances and foreign relations. Under the Platt Amendment, Cuba also agreed to lease to the U. The Platt Amendment was a rider appended to the Army Appropriations Act, a United States federal law passed on March 2, 1901, which S. the naval base at Guantánamo Bay. Guantánamo Bay ( Spanish Bahía de Guantánamo) is a bay located in Guantánamo Province at the south-eastern end of Cuba Cuba today does not celebrate May 20 as their date of independence, but instead October 10, as the first declaration of independence, May 1 international (but not US) labor day, and also July 26, the date of Castro's first attack on Moncada Barracks. Events 325 - The First Council of Nicaea &ndash the first Ecumenical Council of the Christian Church is held Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Events 657 - Battle of Siffin. 811 - Battle of Pliska; Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus [28]
In 1906, following disputed elections, an armed revolt led by Independence War Veterans broke out and that defeated the meager government forces loyal to Estrada Palma and the U. Tomás Estrada y Palma ( Bayamo, July 9, 1832 – Santiago de Cuba, November 4, 1908) was a Cuban Political S. exercised its right of intervention. [29] The country was placed under U. S. occupation and a U. S. governor, Charles Edward Magoon, took charge for three years. Charles Edward Magoon (December 5 1861 – January 14 1920 was an American Lawyer, Judge, Diplomat, and administrator who is best remembered as a Magoon's governorship in Cuba was viewed in a negative light by many Cuban historians for years thereafter, believing that much political corruption was introduced during Magoon's years as governor. [30] In 1908, self-government was restored when José Miguel Gómez was elected President, but the U. José Miguel Gómez ( July 6, 1858 - June 13, 1921) was a Cuban General in the Cuban War of Independence S. retained its supervision of Cuban affairs.
1912 Race War
In 1912 Partido Independiente de Color attempted to establish a separate black republic in Oriente Province. The Partido Independiente de Color (PIC was a Cuban political party composed almost entirely of African former slaves. [31] Perhaps because the group lacked sufficient weaponry the main tactic was to set businesses and private residences on fire. [32] The movement was a failure and General Monteagudo suppressed the rebels with considerable bloodshed. Historians differ on the interpretation of this circumstance. Some view it as suppression of Black rights, others as an attempt at racial cleansing and secession on part of the Black activists. [33]
World War I
Cuba shipped considerable sugar to Britain, via smuggling which avoided U-boat attack by the subterfuge of shipping sugar to Sweden (this operation was managed by Cuban Ambassador Carlos Garcia Velez, General Calixto Garcia's eldest surviving son). U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word, itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot ( undersea boat) and refers Calixto García e Iñiguez ( August 4, 1839 &ndash December 11, 1898) was a general in three Cuban uprisings part of the Cuban During the unsuccessful revolt against the Menocal government in 1917, the government attributed this in part to pro-German sentiment on part of the "Liberales. " However, this was not proven to most historians' satisfaction. The Menocal government declared war on Germany very soon after the U. S. did, and as a result the Mexican government broke off relations with Cuba.
After World War I
Despite frequent outbreaks of disorder, however, constitutional government was maintained until 1930, when Gerardo Machado y Morales suspended the constitution. Gerardo Machado y Morales ( September 28, 1871, Camajuani &ndash March 29, 1939, Miami Beach, Florida)
Machado's government had considerable local support despite its violent suppression of critics. However, it was during this period that Soviet intrusion into Cuban affairs began with the arrival in Cuba of Fabio Grobart. A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. Fabio Grobart (also Antonio Blanco was born in Bialystok, Poland August 30 1905 his birth name was Abraham Grobart aka Abraham Simjovitch During Machado's tenure, a nationalistic economic program was pursued with several major national development projects undertaken (see Infrastructure of Cuba. Cuban infrastructure is significant and includes massive Spanish fortifications built in principal ports (e Carretera Central and El Capitolio). The Carretera Central (Central Road is a west-east highway spanning the length of the island of Cuba. El Capitolio, or the National Capitol Building in Havana, Cuba, was the seat of government in Cuba until after the Cuban Revolution in 1959
Machado's hold on power was weakened following a decline in demand for exported agricultural produce due to the Great Depression, the attacks first by War of Independence veterans, and later by covert terrorist organizations, principally the ABC. [34]
During a general strike in which the communist party took the side of Machado[35] the Senior elements of the Cuban army forced Machado into exile and installed Carlos Manuel de Céspedes, son of Cuba's founding father, as President. Carlos Manuel de Céspedes (born Carlos Manuel de Céspedes del Castillo on April 18 1819 in Bayamo, in Oriente, province of Cuba, —February In September, 4th-5th (1933) however, a second coup (led by sergeants, most notably Fulgencio Batista) overthrew Céspedes leading to the formation of the first Ramón Grau San Martín government. General Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (fulˈxensjo βaˈtista i salˈdiβar January 16, 1901 &ndash August 6, 1973) was a Cuban Dr Ramón Grau San Martin ( September 13, 1887 in La Palma, Pinar del Rio, Cuba - July 28, 1969 in Notable bloody events in this violent period include the separate sieges of Hotel Nacional and Atares Castle (see Blas Hernandez). The Hotel Nacional de Cuba is a historic luxury Hotel located on the Malecón in Havana, Cuba. This government lasted 100 days but engineered radical socialistic changes in Cuban society and a rejection of the Platt amendment. The Platt Amendment was a rider appended to the Army Appropriations Act, a United States federal law passed on March 2, 1901, which
In 1934, Batista and the army, who were the real center of power in Cuba, replaced Grau with Carlos Mendieta y Montefur. Carlos Mendieta y Montefur ( 4 November 1873 -1960 was a Cuban Politician and Provisional President of Cuba. In 1940, Batista decided to run for president himself. Because of a split with the leader of the opposition, Ramón Grau San Martín, Batista turned instead to the Communist Party of Cuba, which had grown in size and influence during the 1930s. Dr Ramón Grau San Martin ( September 13, 1887 in La Palma, Pinar del Rio, Cuba - July 28, 1969 in The Communist Party of Cuba ( Spanish: Partido Comunista de Cuba, PCC is currently the governing political party in Cuba.
Batista's control ends with democratic rule
With the support of the communist-controlled labor unions, Batista was elected President and his administration carried out major social reforms. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based Several members of the Communist Party held office under his administration. Batista's administration formally took Cuba into World War II as a U. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including S. ally, declaring war on Japan on December 9, 1941, then on Germany and Italy on December 11, 1941; Cuba, however, did not significantly participate militarily in World War II hostilities. Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. At the end of his term in 1944, in accordance with the constitution, Batista stepped down and Ramón Grau was elected to succeed him. Dr Ramón Grau San Martin ( September 13, 1887 in La Palma, Pinar del Rio, Cuba - July 28, 1969 in Grau initiated increased government spending on health, education and housing. Grau's auténticos were bitter enemies of the Communists and Batista, which opposed most of Grau's programs.
World War II
Cuba, although supplying vast quantities of sugar, and strategic manganese metal, was not greatly involved in combat during World War II; although, U. S. air bases were established, Cuban freighters were sunk, a German spy was discovered and executed, and a German submarine was sunk by the Cuban navy. During World War II the Nazis counterfeited vast sums of U. S. currency which was sent via the Dozenberg group to Cuba and other parts of Latin America; Soviet directions to the Cuban communist party seem to have been sent via radio from Switzerland by the Alexander Foote Network. [36]
After World War II
Grau completed his presidential term. In 1948, Grau was succeeded by Carlos Prío Socarrás, who had been Grau's minister of labor and was particularly hated by the Communists. Carlos Prío Socarrás ( July 14, 1903 – April 5, 1977) was the 16th President of Cuba from 1948 until he was deposed by a military Corruption is generally believed to have increased notably under Prío's administration; however not all accusations of corruption were proven, and Eduardo Chibás, leader of the Ortodoxo party to which Fidel Castro belonged, committed suicide when his allegations were not substantiated. Eduardo René Chibás Rivas (1907 in Santiago de Cuba - August 16 1951 in Havana, Cuba) was a Cuban politician who used Radio Corruption is partially attributed to the influx of gambling money into Havana, which became a safe haven for mafia operations. The Mafia (also known as Cosa Nostra) is a Sicilian Criminal Secret society which is believed to have first developed in the mid-19th century Prío carried out major reforms such as founding a National Bank and stabilizing the Cuban currency. The influx of investment fueled a boom which did much to raise living standards across the board and create a prosperous middle class in most urban areas, although the gap between rich and poor became wider and more obvious. [37]
From Batista to Castro
The 1952 election was a three-way race. The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of the United States proxy ruler General Fulgencio Batista 's regime on January 1, Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading Roberto Agramonte of the Ortodoxos party led in all the polls, followed by Dr Aurelio Hevia of the Auténtico party, and running a distant third was Batista, who was seeking a return to office. Dr Roberto Agramonte (born Roberto Daniel Agramonte y Pichardo on May 3 1904 in Villa Clara, Cuba - 1995 in Puerto Rico, USA was a Both front runners, Agramonte and Hevia in their own camps, had decided to name Col. Ramon Barquin, then a diplomat in Washington, DC to head the Cuban armed forces after the elections. Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D Barquin was a top officer who commanded the respect of the professional army and had promised to eliminate corruption in the ranks. Batista feared that Barquin would oust him and his followers, and when it became apparent that Batista had little chance of winning, he staged a coup on 10 March 1952 and held power with the backing of a nationalist section of the army as a “provisional president” for the next two years. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Justo Carrillo told Barquin in Washington in March 1952 that the inner circles knew that Batista had aimed the coup at him; they immediately began to conspire to oust Batista and restore democracy and civilian government in what was later dubbed La Conspiracion de los Puros de 1956 (Agrupacion Montecristi). In 1954 Batista agreed to elections. The Partido Auténtico put forward ex-President Grau as their candidate, but he withdrew amid allegations that Batista was rigging the elections in advance. The Partido Auténtico (also known as the Cuban Revolutionary Party-Auténtico or PRC-A was a Cuban Political party most active between the years of 1933 Batista could then claim to be an elected president. General Fulgencio Batista y Zaldívar (fulˈxensjo βaˈtista i salˈdiβar January 16, 1901 &ndash August 6, 1973) was a Cuban
Fidel Castro directed a failed assault on the Moncada Barracks, in Santiago de Cuba, and on the smaller Carlos Manuel de Cespedes Barracks and on the Feast of Saint Ann July 26, 1953. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until The Moncada Barracks was a military Barracks in Santiago de Cuba, named after General Guillermon Moncada, a hero of the War of Independence. Events 657 - Battle of Siffin. 811 - Battle of Pliska; Byzantine Emperor Nicephorus Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [28]
In April 1956, Batista had given the orders for Barquin to become General and chief of the army. But it was too late. Even after Barquin was informed, he decided to move forward with the coup to rescue the morale of the armed forces and the Cuban people. On April 4, 1956, a coup by hundreds of career officers led by Col. Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I. Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Barquin (then vice-chairman of the Inter-American Defense Board in Washington and Cuban military attaché of sea, Air and land to the US) was frustrated by Rios Morejon. The Inter-American Defense Board is an international committee of nationally appointed defense officials who develop collaborative approaches on common defense and security issues facing The coup broke the backbone of the Cuban armed forces. The officers were sentenced to the maximum terms allowed by Cuban Martial Law. Barquin was sentenced to solitary confinement for eight years. La Conspiración de los Puros resulted in the imprisonment of the commanders of the armed forces and the closing of the military academies. Barquin was the founder of La Escuela Superior de Guerra (Cuba's war college) and past director of La Escuela de Cadetes (Cuba's military academy). Without Barquin's officers the army's ability to combat the revolutionary insurgents was severely curtailed.
On 2 December 1956 a party of 82 revolutionaries, led by Castro, landed in a yacht named Granma with the intention of establishing an armed resistance movement in the Sierra Maestra. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Granma is the Yacht that was used to transport the fighters of the Cuban Revolution from Mexico to Cuba in 1956 for the purpose of For the Cuban son bandsee Sierra Maestra (music. Sierra Maestra is a Mountain range that runs westward across the south of the old Oriente Province The yacht had come from Mexico, where Castro had been exiled and where his army was strengthened with the help of Ernesto Che Guevara, who became one of the most important people in the Cuban revolution and one of Castro's closest allies. Ernesto "Che" Guevara (June 14 Following the Cuban revolution,Guevara reviewed Castro had gone to Mexico after serving two years of a 20-year prison sentence for his part in a 1953 rebel attack on the Moncada Barracks in Santiago de Cuba. The Moncada Barracks was a military Barracks in Santiago de Cuba, named after General Guillermon Moncada, a hero of the War of Independence. Santiago de Cuba is the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island nation of Cuba [38]. Castro received his pardon from Batista after being requested by the Archbishop of Santiago, Monseñor Enrique Perez Serantes and Senator Rafael Diaz-Balart, at the time Fidel Castro's brother-in-law. Rafael Lincoln Díaz-Balart y Gutiérrez ( January 17, 1926 - May 6, 2005) was a Cuban politician born in Banes who served After the landing, Batista launched a campaign of repression against the opposition, which only served to increase support for the insurgency. With Barquin's professional officers in La Prison Modelo de Isla de Pinos in the Gulf of Mexico, the army lacked the leadership and will to fight the insurgents.
Through 1957 and 1958, opposition to Batista grew, especially among the upper and middle classes and the students, among the hierarchy of the Catholic Church and in many rural areas. The Museum of the Revolution (Museo de la Revolución is a museum located in the Old Havana section of Havana, Cuba. In response to Batista's plea to purchase better arms from the U. S. to root out insurgents in the mountains, the United States government imposed an arms embargo on the Cuban government on March 14, 1958. Events 1489 - The Queen of Cyprus, Catherine Cornaro, sells her kingdom to Venice. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. By late 1958, the rebels had broken out of the Sierra Maestra and launched a general insurrection, joined by hundreds of students and others fleeing Batista's crackdown on dissent in the cities. When the rebels captured Santa Clara, east of Havana, Batista decided the struggle was futile and fled the country to exile in Portugal and later Spain. Santa Clara is the capital city of the Cuban province of Villa Clara. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Batista named Gen. Eulogio Cantillo chief of the army and gave him instructions not to release Barquin and his officers. Nevertheless, Barquin, who had the backing of the U. S. , was rescued from Isla de Pinos in the early hours and taken to Campamento Ciudad Militar Columbia where he relieved Cantillo and assumed the post of chief of Staff (serving as chief of the armed forces and de facto president of Cuba for a short period) in an effort to establish order in the streets and the armed forces. Isla de la Juventud (lit Isle of Youth; until 1978 named Isla de Pinos – Pine Island is the second-largest Cuban Island and the sixth-largest He negotiated the symbolic change of command between Camilo Cienfuegos, Che Guevara, Raul Castro and his brother Fidel Castro, after the Supreme Court decided that the Revolution was the source of law and its representative should assume command. Camilo Cienfuegos Gorriarán ( February 6, 1932 – October 28, 1959) was a Cuban Revolutionary born in Lawton Havana Ernesto "Che" Guevara (June 14 Following the Cuban revolution,Guevara reviewed Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz (born June 3 1931 is the President of the Cuban Council of State and the Head of state of Cuba. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until With fewer than 300 men, Camilo assumed the post from Barquin who in Columbia alone commanded 12,000 professional soldiers. Castro's rebel forces entered the capital on January 8, 1959. Events 871 - Battle of Ashdown - Ethelred of Wessex defeats a Danish invasion army The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Shortly afterwards Dr Manuel Lleo Urrutia assumed power.
Cuba following revolution
Fidel Castro became prime minister of Cuba in February 1959. Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until In its first year, the new revolutionary government carried out measures such as the expropriation of private property with no or minimal compensation (sometimes based on property tax valuations that the owners themselves had kept artificially low),[39] the nationalization of public utilities, and began a campaign to institute tighter controls on the private sector such as the closing down of the gambling industry. Expropriation refers to Confiscation of Private property with the stated purpose of establishing social equality. Property is any physical or virtual entity that is owned by an individual The government also evicted many Americans, including mobsters (who, in collaboration with Batista, ran the gambling casinos in Havana[40][41]) from the island. " Mobster " is a slang term for a person who participates in Organized crime, which is known as belonging to "the Mob" Some of these measures were undertaken by Fidel Castro's government in the name of the program that he had outlined in the Manifesto of the Sierra Maestra,[42] while in the Sierra Maestra. However, he failed to enact one element of his reform program, which was to call elections under the Electoral Code of 1943 within the first 18 months of his time in power and to restore all of the provisions of the Constitution of 1940 that had been suspended under Batista. Since attaining its independence from Spain, Cuba has had five Constitutions The current constitution was drafted in 1976 and has since been amended
Castro flew to Washington, DC in April 1959, but was not met by President Eisenhower, who decided to attend a golf tournament rather than meet the Cuban leader. Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D The President of the United States is the Head of state and Head of government of the United States and is the highest political official in United States by Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general [43] Castro returned to Cuba after a series of meetings with African-American leaders in New York's Harlem district, and after a lecture on "Cuba and the United States" at the headquarters of the Council on Foreign Relations in New York. African Americans or Black Americans are citizens or residents of the United States who have origins in any of the black populations of Africa New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Harlem is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Manhattan, long known as a major African American cultural and business center The Council on Foreign Relations ( CFR) is an American Nonpartisan foreign policy membership organization founded in 1921 and based at 58 East 68th Street (at New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous [44][45][46] Summary executions of thousands of suspected Batista supporters and members of the opposition through the "paredones" that took place after show trials, coupled with the seizure of privately-owned businesses and the rapid demise of the independent press, nominally attributed to the powerful pro-revolution printing unions,[30] raised questions about the nature of the new government. A summary execution is a type of Extrajudicial punishment in which a person is killed on the spot without Trial. The term show trial is a pejorative description of a type of highly Public trial. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming
The nationalization of private property and businesses, totaling about $25 billion U. S. dollars[47]) and, particularly, U. S. -owned companies (to an excess of 1960 value of US $1. 0 billions[48][49]) aroused immediate hostility within the Eisenhower administration. Election 1952 See also United States presidential election 1952 Dwight D Anti-Castro Cubans began to leave their country in great numbers and formed a burgeoning expatriate community in Miami that was opposed to the Castro government. An expatriate (in abbreviated form expat) is a person temporarily or permanently residing in a country and culture other than that of the person's upbringing
The United States government became increasingly hostile towards the Castro-led government throughout 1959. This may have influenced Castro's movement away from the liberal elements of his revolutionary movement and increased the power of hardline Marxist figures in the government, notably Che Guevara. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Ernesto "Che" Guevara (June 14 Following the Cuban revolution,Guevara reviewed This theory has been attacked in publications which have argued that Castro undertook the Revolution with the goal of turning Cuba towards socialism. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution
Marxist-Leninist Cuba
One immediate strategic result of the Cuban-Soviet alliance was the decision to place Soviet medium range ballistic missiles (MRBMs) and intermediate range ballistic missiles (IRBMs) in Cuba. A medium-range ballistic missile ( MRBM) is a type of Ballistic missile with medium range this last classification depending on the standards of certain organizations An intermediate-range ballistic missile ( IRBM) is a Ballistic missile with a range of 3000-5500 km (1865-3420 miles between a Medium-range ballistic missile This precipitated the Cuban missile crisis of 1962, whereby the Kennedy administration was confronted with a next-door nuclear threat from the Soviet Union, which it denounced at the United Nations and demanded immediate withdrawal of all missiles. The Cuban Missile Crisis was a confrontation between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba during the Cold War. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The idea to place missiles in Cuba was brought up either by Castro or Khrushchev, but agreed by the USSR for the reason that the U. Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following S. had their nuclear missiles placed in Turkey and the Middle East, thus the USSR was confronted with a next-door nuclear threat from the US. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. With minutes to go until the Soviet ships carrying a further shipment of missiles reached a US naval blockade, the Soviets backed down, and made an agreement with Kennedy. All the missiles were to be withdrawn from Cuba, but at the same time the US was to move its missiles from Turkey and elsewhere in the Middle East. Kennedy however couldn't lose face by doing this immediately, but made an assurance to withdraw the US missiles within a couple of months.
Another result was that Kennedy agreed not to invade Cuba in the future. In the aftermath of this, there was a resumption of contacts between the U. S. and Castro, resulting in the release of the anti-Castro fighters captured at the Bay of Pigs to the US in exchange for a package of aid. For the United States invasion at the Bay of Pigs see Bay of Pigs Invasion. However in 1963 relations deteriorated again as Castro moved Cuba towards a fully-fledged Communist system modeled on the Soviet Union. [50] The U. S. imposed a complete diplomatic and commercial embargo on Cuba, and began Operation Mongoose. The Cuban Project (also known as Operation Mongoose) is the general name for CIA Covert operations and plans developed during the early administration In the beginning, U. S. influence in Latin America was strong enough to make the embargo very effective and Cuba was forced to divert virtually all its trade towards the Soviet Union and its allies. However, public declarations of support from Latin American governments for the USA's policies were harder to come by. The Mexican ambassador to the US told the Kennedy administration: "If we publicly declare that Cuba is a threat to our security, forty million Mexicans will die laughing. "
In 1965, Castro merged his revolutionary organizations with the Communist Party, of which he became First Secretary, with Blas Roca as Second Secretary; later to be succeeded by Raúl Castro, who as Defense Minister and Fidel's closest confidant became and has remained the second most powerful figure in the government. Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz (born June 3 1931 is the President of the Cuban Council of State and the Head of state of Cuba. Raúl Castro's position was strengthened by the departure of Che Guevara to launch unsuccessful attempts at insurrectionary movements in the Democratic Republic of Congo, and then Bolivia, where he was killed in 1967. Ernesto "Che" Guevara (June 14 Following the Cuban revolution,Guevara reviewed The Democratic Republic of the Congo (République démocratique du Congo often referred to as DR Congo, DRC or RDC, and formerly known or referred to The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America. Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado, President of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, was a figurehead of little importance. Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado ( April 17, 1919 &ndash June 23, 1983) was a Cuban Politician who served as the 21st Castro introduced a new constitution in 1976 under which he became President himself, while remaining chairman of the Council of Ministers.
Although Cuba's relations with the Soviet Union deteriorated considerably during the mid 1960s, relations between the two countries improved following the Cuban government's endorsement of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968. The Prague Spring ( Czech: Pražské jaro, Slovak: Pražská jar) was a period of political liberalization in Czechoslovakia during As a result, the Soviet Union increased its aid to Cuba. Indeed, through the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviets were prepared to subsidise all this in exchange for the strategic asset of an ally under the nose of the United States and the undoubted propaganda value of Castro's considerable prestige in the developing world. [51]
During the 1970s, Castro moved onto the world stage as a leading spokesperson for Third World “anti-imperialist” governments. Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically He provided invaluable military assistance to pro-Soviet forces in Angola (see Cuba in Angola), Ethiopia, Yemen and other African and Middle Eastern trouble spots. Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya Although the bills for these expeditionary forces were paid by the Soviets, the significant size of the force placed a considerable strain on Cuba's fragile economy, which was adversely affected by the loss of manpower. Cuba's economic growth was also hampered by its dependence on sugar exports, which forced the Soviets to provide further economic assistance by buying the entire Cuban sugar crop, even though domestic producers in the Soviet Union grew enough sugar beet to supply domestic demand. Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose. In exchange the Soviets had to supply Cuba with all its fuel, since it could not import oil from any other source. An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is
By the 1970s, the ability of the U. S. to keep Cuba isolated was declining. Cuba had been expelled from the Organization of American States in 1962 and the OAS had cooperated with the U. The Organization of American States ( OAS, or as it is known in the three other official languages OEA) is an International organization, headquartered S. trade boycott for the next decade, but, in 1975, the OAS lifted all sanctions against Cuba and both Mexico and Canada broke ranks with the U. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page S. by developing closer relations with Cuba. Both countries said that they hoped to foster liberalization in Cuba by allowing trade, cultural and diplomatic contacts to resume — in this they were disappointed, since there was no appreciable easing of repression against domestic opposition. Castro did stop openly supporting insurrectionary movements against Latin American governments, although pro-Castro groups continued to fight the military dictatorships which then controlled most Latin American countries.
The Cuban exile community in the U. A Cuban American ( Cubanoamericano) is a United States citizen who traces his or her "national origin" to Cuba. S. grew in size, wealth and power and politicized elements effectively opposed liberalization of U. S. policy towards Cuba, and have been accused of many terrorist acts, including the bombing of civilian Cubana flight 455 in 1976, resulting in the death of all 73 passengers. [52] However, the efforts of the exiles to foment an anti-Castro movement inside Cuba, let alone a revolution there, met with limited success. On Sunday, April 6, 1980, 10,000 Cubans stormed the Peruvian embassy in Havana seeking political asylum. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. On Monday, April 7, the Cuban government granted permission for the emigration of Cubans seeking refuge in the Peruvian embassy. Events 529 - First draft of Corpus Juris Civilis (a fundamental work in Jurisprudence) is issued by Eastern Roman Emperor [53] On April 16 500 Cuban citizens left the Peruvian Embassy for Costa Rica. Events 1178 BC - A Solar eclipse may have marked the return of Odysseus, legendary King of Ithaca, to his kingdom Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in On April 21 many of those Cubans started arriving in Miami via private boats and were halted by the US State Department on April 23. Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) Events 215 BC - A temple is built on the Capitoline Hill dedicated to Venus Erycina to commemorate the Roman defeat at The boat lift continued, however, since Castro allowed anyone who desired to leave the country to do so through the port of Mariel and this emigration became known as the Mariel boatlift. The Mariel Boatlift was a mass movement of Cubans who departed from Cuba 's Mariel Harbor for the United States between April 15 and The Cuban government took the opportunity to empty Cuban prisons of all serious offenders, place them on boats and dupe the US into accepting them. Many formerly incarcerated individuals established themselves in Miami, Florida, and help to account for the high crime rate in that area. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the In all, over 125,000 Cubans emigrated to the United States before the flow of vessels ended on June 15. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history [54]
Post Cold War Cuba
The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 dealt Cuba a giant economic blow. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 It led to another unregulated exodus of asylum seekers to the United States in 1994, but was eventually slowed to a trickle of a few thousand a year by the U. S. -Cuban accords. It again increased in 2004-06 although at a far slower rate than before.
Castro's popularity, which is difficult to assess, was severely tested by the aftermath of the Soviet collapse (a time known in Cuba as the Special Period). The Special Period in Peacetime ( Período especial en tiempo de paz) in Cuba was an extended period of Economic Crisis that began in The loss of the nearly five billion USD that the Soviet government provided the Cuban government in aid in the form of a guaranteed export market for Cuban sugar and cheap oil had a significant impact on the country's economy.
As in all Communist countries, the collapse of the Soviet Union caused a crisis in confidence for those who believed that the Soviet Union was successfully “building socialism” and providing a model that other countries should follow. However, this event, even combined with a tightening of the embargo by the US government, was insufficient to persuade Cuba's Communists to surrender their grip on power. There were numerous popular uprisings in the early 1990s, the most notable of which was the "Maleconazo" of 1994.
By the later 1990s the situation in the country had stabilized. [55][56] By then Cuba had more or less normal economic relations with most Latin American countries and had improved relations with the European Union, which began providing aid and loans to the island. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Communist China also emerged as a new source of aid and support, even though Cuba had sided with the Soviets during the Sino-Soviet split of the 1960s. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The Sino-Soviet split was a gradual divergence of diplomatic ties between the People's Republic of China (PRC and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR Cuba also found new allies in President Hugo Chávez of Venezuela and President Evo Morales of Bolivia, both major oil and gas exporters. ||-||} Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->The President of Venezuela (Presidente Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the The President of Bolivia is the head of state of Bolivia. According to the current constitution the president is elected by popular vote for a single non-renewable five year Juan Evo Morales Ayma (born October 26 1959 in Orinoca, Oruro) popularly known as Evo (ˈeβo is the President of Bolivia since The Republic of Bolivia (República de Bolivia) named after Simón Bolívar, is a Landlocked country in central South America.
Transfer of duties and handover of power
On July 31, 2006, Fidel Castro delegated his duties as President of the Council of state, President of the Council of Ministers, First Secretary of the Cuban Communist Party and the post of commander in chief of the armed forces to his brother and First Vice President, Raúl Castro. The 2006–2008 Cuban transfer of presidential duties was a transfer of duties of the Cuban Presidency from Fidel Castro to the first vice president his Events 30 BC - Battle of Alexandria: Mark Antony achieves a minor victory over Octavian 's forces but most of his army subsequently The Council of State (Consejo de Estado of Cuba is a 31 member body of the government of Cuba elected by the National Assembly of People’s Power. The Council of Ministers is the highest ranking executive and administrative body and constitutes the government of the Republic of Cuba. The Communist Party of Cuba ( Spanish: Partido Comunista de Cuba, PCC is currently the governing political party in Cuba. A commander-in-chief is the Commander of a nation's Military forces or significant element of those forces __FORCETOC__ For the Vice President of the United States, their roles and other information see Vice President of the United States. Raúl Modesto Castro Ruz (born June 3 1931 is the President of the Cuban Council of State and the Head of state of Cuba. This transfer of duties has been described as temporary while Fidel Castro recovers from surgery undergone after suffering from an "acute intestinal crisis with sustained bleeding". Fidel Castro was too ill to attend the nationwide commemoration of the 50th anniversary of the Granma boat landing on December 2, 2006, which fueled speculations that Castro had stomach cancer,[57] though Spanish doctor Dr. Granma is the Yacht that was used to transport the fighters of the Cuban Revolution from Mexico to Cuba in 1956 for the purpose of Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. García Sabrido stated that his illness was a digestive problem and not terminal, after an examination of the subject on Christmas Day. [58][59]
On January 31, 2007, footage of Castro meeting with Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez was broadcast, where, according to international media reports, Castro "appeared frail but stronger than three months ago",[60] and the Cuban leader made a lengthy surprise appearance by phone on Chávez's radio talk show Aló Presidente the following month. Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. Aló Presidente ( English: Hello president) is a talk show hosted by Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez and broadcast on Venezuelan [61] Though Castro loyalists in the Cuban government had maintained that he will stand in the 2008 elections to the Cuban National Assembly, speculation continued as to whether he would ever return to power. The National Assembly of People’s Power (Spanish Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular) is the Legislative Parliament of the Republic of Cuba [62] Recent requests for mass donations of copper ornaments are interpreted by some to suggest support for persistent rumors that massive memorial statues are being prepared. Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 [63]
On February 19, 2008 Fidel Castro announced that he is resigning from his function as President of Cuba. Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common [64] On 24 February 2008, Raúl Castro was elected as the new President of Cuba. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common [65] In his acceptance speech, Raúl Castro promised that some of the restrictions that limit Cubans' daily lives would be removed; according to an official memo, a ban on the purchase of computers, DVD players and microwaves is to be lifted. [66]
Government and politics
Domestic politics
Following enactment of the Socialist Constitution of 1976, adopted without following procedures laid out in the Constitution of 1940, the Republic of Cuba was defined as a socialist republic. The term socialist state (or socialist republic, or workers' state) can carry one of several different (but related meanings In strictly speaking any This constitution was replaced by the Socialist Constitution of 1992, the present constitution, which claimed to be guided by the ideas of José Martí, and the political ideas of Marx, Engels and Lenin. José Julián Martí Pérez ( January 28, 1853 &ndash May 19, 1895) Born in Havana from Spanish parents his short life was dedicated to gaining Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895 was a German social scientist and philosopher, who [68] The present constitution also ascribes the role of the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) to be the "leading force of society and of the state. Since attaining its independence from Spain, Cuba has had five Constitutions The current constitution was drafted in 1976 and has since been amended The Communist Party of Cuba ( Spanish: Partido Comunista de Cuba, PCC is currently the governing political party in Cuba. "[68] Members of both councils are elected by the National Assembly of People's Power. The National Assembly of People’s Power (Spanish Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular) is the Legislative Parliament of the Republic of Cuba [69] The President of Cuba, who is also elected by the Assembly, serves for five years and there is no limit to the number of terms of office. [69] Fidel Castro has been in government since the adoption of the Constitution in 1976 when he replaced Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado. Since attaining its independence from Spain, Cuba has had five Constitutions The current constitution was drafted in 1976 and has since been amended Osvaldo Dorticós Torrado ( April 17, 1919 &ndash June 23, 1983) was a Cuban Politician who served as the 21st The Supreme Court of Cuba serves as the nation's highest judicial branch of government. The People's Supreme Court (Tribunal Supremo Popular is the highest body of judicial power in Cuba. It is also the court of last resort for all appeals from convictions in provincial courts.
Cuba's national legislature, the National Assembly of People's Power (Asamblea Nacional de Poder Popular), is the supreme organ of power and has 609 members who serve five-year terms. The National Assembly of People’s Power (Spanish Asamblea Nacional del Poder Popular) is the Legislative Parliament of the Republic of Cuba [69] The assembly meets twice a year, between sessions legislative power is held by the 31 member Council of Ministers. The Council of Ministers is the highest ranking executive and administrative body and constitutes the government of the Republic of Cuba. Candidates for the Assembly are approved by public referendum. A candidate is the prospective recipient of an Award or honor or a person seeking or being considered for some kind of position for example to be elected A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita All Cuban citizens over 16 who have not been found guilty of a criminal offense can vote. Article 131 of the Constitution states that voting shall be "through free, equal and secret vote". Article 136 states: "In order for deputies or delegates to be considered elected they must get more than half the number of valid votes cast in the electoral districts". Votes are cast by secret ballot and counted in public view. The secret ballot is a voting method in which a Voter 's choices are confidential Individual vote totals, which are invariably high, are not verified by non-partisan, independent, or non-state organs and observers. Election monitoring is the observation of an Election by one or more independent parties typically from another country or a Non-governmental organization (NGO Nominees are chosen at local gatherings from multiple candidates before gaining approval from election committees. In the subsequent election, there is one candidate for each seat, who must gain a majority to be elected.
No political party is permitted to nominate candidates or campaign on the island, though the Communist Party of Cuba has held five party congress meetings since 1975. Political parties in Cuba lists political parties in this country In 1997, the party claimed 780,000 members, and representatives generally constitute at least half of the Councils of state and the National Assembly. The remaining positions are filled by candidates nominally without party affiliation. Other political parties campaign and raise finances internationally, while activity within Cuba by oppositional groups is minimal and illegal. The opposition to Fidel Castro ' s Marxist Government is largely unofficial and illegal within Cuba itself While the Cuban constitution has language pertaining to freedom of speech, rights are limited by Article 62, which states that "None of the freedoms which are recognized for citizens can be exercised contrary to. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. . . the existence and objectives of the socialist state, or contrary to the decision of the Cuban people to build socialism and communism. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based [70] Violations of this principle can be punished by law. " Because the means of production are in the hands of the state and under the control of the government, there have been numerous cases where violations of this law have cost dissidents their employment.
For the above conditions, opponents of the present Cuban government sustain Cuban elections are neither free nor fair. [71]
Members of the Communist Party Cubans participate in the community-based Committees for the Defense of the Revolution, which play a central role in daily life. Committees for the Defense of the Revolution ( Comités de Defensa de la Revolución) or CDR, is a network of Committees across Cuba. These groups are designed to coordinate public projects, ensure that the population remains loyal to the government's specific brand of socialism, and act as neighbourhood watchdogs against "counter-revolutionary" activities. A counter-revolutionary is anyone who opposes a Revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it in full or in part
The Cuban Communist Party has not openly held its statutorily required Congress for ten years, which is at least five years overdue. It is not expected that one will be held until either Fidel Castro recovers or an open public and permanent successor is named[72]
Cuban Internationalism / Foreign relations
From its inception the Cuban Revolution defined itself as internationalist. The Cuban Revolution refers to the revolution that led to the overthrow of the United States proxy ruler General Fulgencio Batista 's regime on January 1, Within a year after the revolution Cuba took on civil and military assignments in the southern hemisphere; supporting anti-colonial liberation movements, leftist governments and insurgencies against dictatorships. Although still a third world country itself, Cuba supported African, Central American and Asian countries with military, health and educational resources. These "overseas adventures" not only irritated the US, but quite often were a "major headache" for the Kremlin. View01jpg|thumb|right|250px|Remains of the Kolomna Kremlin]] Kremlin (Кремль Kreml) is the Russian word for "fortress" "citadel" or "castle" [73]
Latin America
The Cuban Government's military involvement in Latin America has been extensive. The Sandinista insurgency in Nicaragua which lead to the demise of the Somoza-Dictatorship in 1979, was openly supported by Cuba and can be considered its greatest success in Latin America. The Sandinista National Liberation Front ( Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional) is a socialist Nicaraguan Political party. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America Apart from that, Cuban efforts bore little fruit in this region considered to be the back door of the US.
The most well known of these failures was the attempted insurgency by Ernesto Guevara in Bolivia in 1967. Ernesto "Che" Guevara (June 14 Following the Cuban revolution,Guevara reviewed Less known actions were the 1959 missions into the Dominican Republic[74] and Panama. Almost all countries in Latin America, of which the most, at the time, had autocratic governments, witnessed this kind of infiltration. Arnaldo Ochoa, the eventual commander of Cuban forces in Angola, is said to be the only survivor of the Camilo Cienfuegos contingent sent on the doomed expedition to the Dominican Republic. Arnaldo T Ochoa Sánchez (1930 in Havana Cuba – July 12 1989) was a prominent Cuban General who was executed after being found Camilo Cienfuegos Gorriarán ( February 6, 1932 – October 28, 1959) was a Cuban Revolutionary born in Lawton Havana [75]
The official position of the Cuban government is that although allegations of the Cuban government's military involvement in other countries of the Americas have been extensive these are not well substantiated. The alleged presence of "armed Cuban military advisors" on the island of Grenada was given as one reason for the US government invasion of the island and overthrow of its government in 1981. The commercial airport that was being built on Grenada with Cuban assistance was also cited by US President Ronald Reagan claimed as evidence of Cuban interference in the region. Grenada (grɪˈneɪdə is an Island nation that includes the southern Grenadines in the southeastern Caribbean Sea. In a speech in 1983, Reagan stated that satellite images of baseball diamonds in Nicaragua in the 1980s was proof of Cuban infiltration. Critics would observe that Reagan ignored the fact that baseball had been popular in Nicaragua since the turn of the century. However, far more solid data backed up Reagan's statements. [76] - All Cuban personnel in Nicaragua, both military and civilian, have instructions to organize into combat units to assist the Sandinista Army in the event of a U. S. invasion of Nicaragua, according to a high-ranking Cuban defector. Brig. Gen. Rafael del Pino Diaz, … The State Department has said there are between 2,500 and 3,500 Cuban military personnel in Nicaragua and an estimated 5,000 civilians, including doctors, teachers and others. Brig. Gen. Del Pino says there are only 300 to 400 Cuban soldiers in the country, but adds that even Cuban civilians there are regularly trained to ensure they are in adequate physical condition in case the cross-border march is ordered. Maj. Roger Miranda Bengoechea, a recent Nicaraguan Army defector, put the number of Cuban soldiers in Nicaragua at 500. … The Reagan administration has said there are no plans for an invasion and instead is hoping that the Contra rebels will either oust the Sandinistas or force them, through military pressure, to adopt Western-style democracy. … According to Brig. Gen. del Pino and Maj. Miranda, both Cuba and Nicaragua place high priority on avoiding a similar fate (as Grenada) for the Sandinista government. Brig. Gen. Del Pino ;. . has told U. S. officials that each Cuban in Nicaragua has instructions on where to report once an invasion begins. Arms for the Cuban forces have been stashed for this eventuality, he has said. … Defense Minister Humberto Ortega, corroborating Maj. Miranda's comments in many aspects, said two weeks ago that a 600,000 member Nicaraguan military force, comprised mostly of militia and reserves, is being planned with a 1995 target date. . ” Casualty ratios in Grenada indicate that vigorous defense of the landing strip by the Cuban construction workers was one of the bravest ever carried out by nominal civilians. [77] - U. S. soldiers dug up a burned and badiy decomposed body from a shallow pit Tuesday, and an officer said he was "relatively sure" it was the remains of slain Erime Minister Maurice Bishop. … Bishop, Foreign Minister Unison Whiteman, Housing Minister Norris Bain, Education Minister Jacqueline Creft and others were killed October 19 after a crowd freed Bishop from house arrest and marched with him to the army headquarters at Fort Rupert (by Military Junta) U. S. forces invaded October 25 The pit is next to a bombed supply shed at the Calivigny barracks, a camp where the U. S army believes the Cubans were training the Grenadian army. … Gen. Jack Farris, who said "I think it's kind of important to find the body (of Bishop). He was a hero to some people here. Bishop and other members of the socialist New Jewel Movement party seized power in 1979 in a coup which toppled the government of Sir Eric Gairy…In Washington, the State Department said Tuesday… an estimated 50 Cubans were killed and 59 wounded In fighting following the U. S. landing on Grenada. Until Tuesday, the administration had withheld its estimate of the number of Cuban dead. The Pentagon has said 18 Americans died in the conflict, and that 18 inmates at a mental hospital were killed in an accidental U. S. bombing. " Others estimate the size of the Cuban and Grenadian forces much higher. [78]“…they faced one thousand Grenadian, another one thousand local Grenadian militia, and about 600 Cubans. The Cubans in the construction force working in the southwest corner of the island at Point Salinas airfield were expected to resist a landing by American Forces. There were additionally forty Cuban advisers assigned to the Grenadian Army, eighty seven Cuban soldiers, eighteen diplomats from a number of countries with military ties to Grenada, and of course, Cuban Colonel Comas Tortoló (Colonel Pedro Tortoló), who had just been sent by Castro to supervise the defense. Colonel Tortolo senior Cuban commander, and his staff were stripped of their rank and sent to Angola. [79] ” This rappochement attempt unraveled on October 25, (1983) when American troops and others from the Organization of Eastern Caribbean States invaded Grenada to restore order after the coup that killed Prime Minister Maurice Bishop. Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a Cuban forces in Grenada had 24 killed, 57 wounded, and 642 taken prisoner. ” End note 32. Marco Espinoza, "Fueron Derrotadas las Tropas de Ocupación de Castro en Grenada", Diario las Américas, October 28, 1983, p. Events 306 - Maxentius is proclaimed Roman Emperor. 312 - Battle of Milvian Bridge: Constantine Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) 1; and "Why the Surprise Move in Grenada-And What Next?" U. S. News & World Report, November 7, 1983, p. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) 31. Cuban Colonel Pedro Tortoló, in charge of defenses in Grenada, and forty-two of his officers were later courtmartialed for cowardice, demoted to privates, and dispatched to the Angola front. "Coronel Tortoló Degradado a Soldado y Enviado a Angola", Diario las Américas, June 20, 1984, p. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 1984 ( MCMLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1984 Gregorian calendar) 1; and "Cuba: No Longer a Hero", Time, July 2, 1984, p. Events 310 - Pope Miltiades is elected 626 - In fear of assassination Li Shimin ambushes and kills his rival Year 1984 ( MCMLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1984 Gregorian calendar) 37. </ref>
Africa
Unlike the rather limited success in Latin America the situation was quite different on the African continent, where, in all, Cuba supported 17 liberation movements or leftist governments. In some countries it suffered setbacks, such as in eastern Zaire (Simba Rebellion), but in others Cuba garnered significant successes. The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 Major engangements took place in Algeria, Zaire, Yemen,[80] Ethiopia, Guinea-Bissau and Mozambique. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The Republic of Zaire (pronunciation; République du Zaïre was the name of the present Democratic Republic of the Congo between October 27, 1971 Yemen ( Arabic: اليَمَن al-Yaman officially the Republic of Yemen ( Arabic: الجمهورية اليمنية al-Jumhuuriyya NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page The Republic of Guinea-Bissau (ˈgɪni bɨˈsaʊ República da Guiné-Bissau ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɐ giˈnɛ biˈsau is a country in Western Africa, and one of the smallest Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa Among all the countries Cuba ever supported, Angola takes an exceptional position (see Cuba in Angola and Namibia). Angola, officially the Republic of Angola (República de Angola Pronounced ʁɛˈpublikɐ dɨ ɐ̃ˈgɔlɐ Repubilika ya Ngola is a country in south-central Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast
Cuba-United States relations
Since Cuba became a declared socialist republic in 1961, the United States Government has initiated various policy measures against Cuba's government, applying standards on Cuba which some believe it did not apply to countries with arguably equally poor human rights records, including other Communist countries such as Vietnam and China. Cuba and the United States of America have had an interest in one another since well before either of their independence movements The term socialist state (or socialist republic, or workers' state) can carry one of several different (but related meanings In strictly speaking any These measures have had a considerable political and economic effect on the island; these have variously been designed to encourage Cubans to remove the leadership and to undertake political change towards liberal democracy. The term "liberal" in "liberal democracy" does not imply that the government of such a democracy must follow the political ideology of The most significant of these measures was the United States embargo against Cuba and the subsequent Helms-Burton Act of 1996. The United States Embargo Against Cuba (described in Cuba as el bloqueo, Spanish for "the Blockade " is an economic commercial and The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity (Libertad Act of 1996 ( Helms-Burton Act,,,) is a United States federal law which strengthens and continues the The US government, its supporters and other observers contend that the Cuban government does not meet the minimal standards of a democracy, especially through its lack of multi-party contests for seats and the limitations on free speech that limit a candidate's ability to campaign. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system [81] The Cuban government, its supporters and other observers within and outside Cuba argue that Cuba has a form of democracy, citing the extensive participation in the nomination process at the national and municipal level. Since Cuba became a one-party republic and the Communist party became the official political party, Cuba has been both condemned and praised by certain
The US government has budgeted $39 million in 2008 for "broadcasting to Cuba". [82]
In 2000, the Trade Sanctions Reform and Enhancement Act allowed for exports directly from the United States to Cuba in the areas of food and medical products. Highly restrictive, companies such as the Navarretta Group built markets for U. S. companies and taught them how to receive the proper licensing from the U. S. Department of the Treasury and the U. S. Department of Commerce.
Human rights
(See also Guantanamo Bay detention camp)
The Cuban government has been accused of numerous human rights abuses, including torture, arbitrary imprisonment, unfair trials, and extra-judicial executions. See also Guantanamo Bay detention camp Human rights in Cuba are a subject of much debate The Guantanamo Bay Detention Camp is a controversial United States Detention center operated by Joint Task Force Guantanamo since 2002 in Guantanamo Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally [83] Dissidents complain of harassment and torture. [84] While the Cuban government placed a moratorium on capital punishment in 2001, it made an exception for perpetrators of an armed hijacking 2 years later. Groups like Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch have issued reports on Cuban prisoners of conscience. Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to Human Rights Watch is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Human rights. [85] Opponents claim the Cuban government represses free expression by limiting access to the Internet. [86]
Human Rights Watch claims that the true number of political prisoners may well be vastly understated. [87] According to Human Rights Watch, political prisoners, along with the rest of Cuba's prison population, are confined to jails with substandard and unhealthy conditions. [87]
In the last weeks of March 2003, the Cuban government sentenced 75 members of the opposition to prison terms of up to 28 years. The activists were charged with “disrespect” toward the Revolution, “treason,” and “giving information to the enemy,” in the harshest backlash against peaceful dissent that the island had seen in years. [88][89] Since 2003, human rights supporters have sent thousands of appeals to the Cuban authorities calling for the release of the prisoners. The numbers of recognized political prisoners varies over time, increasing and decreasing with circumstances. However all former political prisoners are subject to arbitrary re-arrest. [90] Political arrests continue. [91]
On the fourth anniversary of a major crackdown on human rights activists in Cuba that saw dozens sentenced to long prison terms for peaceful promotion of basic rights and freedoms, human rights organizations called for the release of the 59 prisoners who remain in jail, several of whom are seriously ill. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled [92] Organizations like Human Rights First called on the Cuban government and, in particular, to interim leader Raul Castro, to immediately and unconditionally release the 59 individuals who remain in prison since their arrest in the spring of 2003. Human Rights First is a New York City -based association formerly known as the Lawyers Committee for Human Rights.
The Ladies in White are the wives and relatives of those imprisoned in a series of controversial 2003 arrests. Ladies in White (Damas de Blanco is an opposition movement in Cuba consisting of spouses and other relatives of jailed Dissident. They have persistently and peacefully advocated their release since then. [93]
Marta Beatriz Roque has been twice detained for her opposition to the government. Marta Beatriz Roque Cabello (Born May 16, 1945) is a prominent Cuban Political dissident. In July 1997, she and three other dissidents were detained for publishing a paper titled "The Homeland Belongs to All,"[94] which discussed Cuba's human rights situation and called for political and economic reforms. The paper, which was labeled seditious by the government, led to her being imprisoned for a little over three years. On April 3, 2003, Roque was brought to trial and convicted. Events 1043 - Edward the Confessor is crowned King of England. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. She was sentenced to 20 years in prison for engaging in “activities aimed at subverting the internal order of the Cuban State, provoking its destabilization and the loss of its independence,” and receiving “substantial monetary funds from the U. S. Government. ” On July 22, 2004, Roque was unexpectedly released from prison due to her declining health. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Medical parole, however, is given only for the duration of the illness. As such, she is subject to rearrest and detainment in the event that there is any improvement in her health. According to Amnesty International, Roque has been harassed repeatedly by Cuban government supporters and state security agents, including receiving death threats and being physically assaulted since her early release from prison. [95][96]
Normando Hernández González is an independent journalist sentenced to 25 years in prison in the spring of 2003 for his commentaries on Cuban society, including pieces on the Cuban health, educational and judicial systems, and for his promotion of free expression. Mr. Hernández was apparently held in a cell for more than a year with a prisoner known to have tuberculosis, despite repeated concerns expressed by him and his family. Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common He was recently confirmed to have contracted tuberculosis and is suffering from high fevers, fatigue and fainting. The doctors at Prison Kilo 7 in Camagüey, where he is being held, are reportedly refusing him medical assistance. Camagüey is a city and municipality in central Cuba and is the nation's third largest city There have also been reports that he has been physically assaulted by prison guards. [97]
José Luis García Paneque was sentenced to 24 years in prison in 2003 for his work as an independent journalist, as well as for his involvement in a civic initiative to promote democratic reforms, known as the Varela Project. The Varela Project ( Proyecto Varela in Spanish is a project that was started in 1998 by Oswaldo Payá of the Christian Liberation Movement and named after García Paneque's health has dramatically worsened since his imprisonment; he suffers from intestinal problems that have caused him to lose almost 90 pounds and at one point left him emaciated at a weight of around 110 pounds. He also suffers from rectal bleeding, and has dangerously low blood pressure. Despite these symptoms, his wife reports that he is not receiving adequate medical care and her request for his release on medical parole in November 2005 has not been answered. [98][99]
Luis Enrique Ferrer García received a 28-year sentence for his work with the Varela Project, a civic initiative calling for democratic reforms in Cuba. To protest his unjust imprisonment, particularly harsh prison conditions and mistreatment by prison authorities, Ferrer García has engaged in numerous hunger strikes throughout his detention, often leaving him very ill and weak. In addition, he has been the victim of numerous physical assaults by security guards and violent prisoners, most of whom are encouraged by prison authorities to harass and intimidate him. [100]
Oscar Elías Biscet is a physician and president of the Lawton Foundation for Human Rights, which peacefully promotes human rights and the rule of law. Oscar Elías Biscet González (born July 20, 1961 in Havana, Cuba) is a medical professional a prominent In reprisal for his human rights activities, the 41-year-old doctor was sentenced to 25 years in prison and has been held in some of the harshest conditions, including in punishment cells and solitary confinement. For long periods of time he is denied family visits, the right to leave his cell, and essential packages of medicine and food. Biscet suffers from chronic gastritis, hypertension and recurring infections, and is reportedly losing his eyesight; his poor health has been severely aggravated by unhygienic prison conditions and harsh treatment. At one point, Dr. Biscet was reported have lost more than 60 pounds. [101]
Although still clinging to official Cuban government view that racial progress was poor before Castro reached power (despite the obvious ethnicity of the leader and many senior members of the Batista regime) has eroded in the last few years. [102]
Freedom of information in Cuba
In addition to scholarly concerns and disputes among experts on Cuba, major factors limiting accuracy of information about the island include the censorship by the Cuban Government.
Stuart Hamilton writes in the Progressive Librarian issue 19-10 2002[103]
- "The members of the underground opposition parties face constant scrutiny from the authorities for their anti-government views. However, at the same time as enforcing a crackdown on dissidents the government is also accused of preventing ordinary Cubans accessing information. Independent news agencies are banned, and journalists who report stories contrary to the official line reported in the state newspaper, Granma, are likely to be victimised. As a result of this anti-government stories are normally found in newspapers and journals published abroad, as journalists go underground to send stories out to foreign sympathisers via telephone. Miami in Florida is the centre of anti-Castro publishing activity, with papers such as Nueva Prensa containing articles critical of the regime. "
Expelled BBC correspondent Stephen Gibbs comments
- "Cuban officials are surprisingly unapologetic on the issue. Their justification is that Cuba is in the midst of an undeclared war with a shameless US administration which is determined to undermine the Cuban revolution. They sometimes allude to what they seem to regard as the British government's distinguished censorship of the press during World War II". Censorship in the United Kingdom has a long history with variously stringent and lax laws in place at different times although a much more liberal approach has been taken in recent years [104]
Apparently Cuban cabinet ministers do not know about Castro's state of health:
- " Cuban leader Fidel Castro is not at death's door and rumors in Miami of his demise are wishful thinking, Cuban Culture Minister Abel Prieto said on Wednesday. . . he had no inside information on Castro's medical condition, but deduced from the 81-year-old leader's regular essays and columns that he is not dying. "[105]
Trade unions
There are unions in Cuba, with a membership totaling 98% of the island's workforce. Unions do not register with any state agency, and are self financed from monthly membership dues. Their supporters claim that union officers are elected on an open basis, and differing political views are found within each of the unions. [106] However, all unions are part of an organization called the Confederación de Trabajadores Cubanos (Confederation of Cuban Workers, CTC), which does maintain close ties with the state and the Communist Party. Supporters claim that the CTC allows workers to have their voice heard in government; opponents claim that the government uses it to control the trade unions and appoint their leaders. The freedom of workers to express independent opinions is also a subject of debate. Supporters of the system argue that workers' opinions have in fact shaped government policy on several occasions, as in a 1993 proposal for tax reform,[106] while opponents, citing studies by international labor organizations, point out that workers are required to pledge allegiance to the ideals of the Communist Party, and argue that the government systematically harasses and detains labor activists, while prohibiting the creation of independent (non-CTC affiliated) trade unions, that the leaders of attempted independent unions have been imprisoned, and that the right to strike is not recognized in the law. [107]
International Intrigue in Cuba
Examples of international intrigue in Cuba, dating to the Gerardo Machado regime, when Marxist Pole Fabio Grobart first entered the Island, are given by Roger Fontaine[108]
Soviet advisers
As early as 1959 Soviet Advisers were seen in Cuba. Gerardo Machado y Morales ( September 28, 1871, Camajuani &ndash March 29, 1939, Miami Beach, Florida) Fabio Grobart (also Antonio Blanco was born in Bialystok, Poland August 30 1905 his birth name was Abraham Grobart aka Abraham Simjovitch The agents were in place as early as September 1959 when KGB colonel, Valdim Kotchergin (or Kochergin) was seen in Cuba[109] Vadim Kochergin and also KGB Colonel (later General) Victor Simonov went on to train overseas personnel including Carlos the Jackal (Ilich Ramírez Sánchez) and subcomandante Marcos (commonly believed to be a non-Indigenous student called Rafael Sebastián Guillén[110] Jorge Luis Vasquez, a Cuban who was imprisoned in East Germany, states that the Stasi (the East German secret police agency) trained the personnel of the Cuban Interior Ministry(MINIT)[111]
Provinces and municipalities
Fourteen provinces and one special municipality (the Isla de la Juventud) now compose Cuba. Ilich Ramírez Sánchez (born) is a Venezuelan born leftist Revolutionary. Subcomandante Marcos, also known as Delegado Cero in matters concerning the Other Campaign, describes himself as the spokesman for the Mexican rebel Subcomandante Marcos, also known as Delegado Cero in matters concerning the Other Campaign, describes himself as the spokesman for the Mexican rebel Administratively, Cuba is divided into fourteen provinces and one special Municipality. The provinces of Cuba are divided into 169 municipalities or municipios. Isla de la Juventud (lit Isle of Youth; until 1978 named Isla de Pinos – Pine Island is the second-largest Cuban Island and the sixth-largest These in turn were formerly part of six larger historical provinces: Pinar del Río, Habana, Matanzas, Las Villas, Camagüey and Oriente. The present subdivisions closely resemble those of Spanish military provinces during the Cuban Wars of Independence, when the most troublesome areas were subdivided.
| 1 | Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) | ||
| 2 | Pinar del Río | 9 | Ciego de Ávila |
| 3 | La Habana (Havana) | 10 | Camagüey |
| 4 | Ciudad de la Habana (Havana City) | 11 | Las Tunas |
| 5 | Matanzas | 12 | Granma |
| 6 | Cienfuegos | 13 | Holguín |
| 7 | Villa Clara | 14 | Santiago de Cuba |
| 8 | Sancti Spíritus | 15 | Guantánamo |
The provinces are further divided into 170 municipalities. Isla de la Juventud (lit Isle of Youth; until 1978 named Isla de Pinos – Pine Island is the second-largest Cuban Island and the sixth-largest Pinar del Río is one of the Provinces of Cuba. It is at the western end of the island of Cuba. Havana Province (Provincia de la Habana is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading Matanzas is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Major towns in the province include Cárdenas, Jovellanos and the capital of the same name Matanzas Cienfuegos is one of the provinces of Cuba. The capital city of the province is also called Cienfuegos and was founded by French settlers in 1819 Villa Clara is one of the Provinces of Cuba. It's located in the central region of the island bordering with the Atlantic at north Matanzas Province by west Sancti Spíritus is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Its capital is the identically named Sancti Spíritus. Ciego de Ávila is one of the provinces of Cuba, and was previously part of Camagüey Province. Camagüey is the largest of the Provinces of Cuba. Its capital is Camagüey. Las Tunas is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Major towns include Puerto Padre and Amancio, as well as the capital Victoria de Las Tunas (sometimes Granma is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Its capital is Bayamo. Holguín is one of the provinces of Cuba, the second most populous after Ciudad de la Habana. Santiago de Cuba Province is the second most populated province in the island of Cuba. Guantánamo is the easternmost province of Cuba. Its capital is also called Guantánamo. Isla de la Juventud (lit Isle of Youth; until 1978 named Isla de Pinos – Pine Island is the second-largest Cuban Island and the sixth-largest Pinar del Río is one of the Provinces of Cuba. It is at the western end of the island of Cuba. Ciego de Ávila is one of the provinces of Cuba, and was previously part of Camagüey Province. Havana Province (Provincia de la Habana is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Camagüey is the largest of the Provinces of Cuba. Its capital is Camagüey. Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading Las Tunas is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Major towns include Puerto Padre and Amancio, as well as the capital Victoria de Las Tunas (sometimes Matanzas is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Major towns in the province include Cárdenas, Jovellanos and the capital of the same name Matanzas Granma is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Its capital is Bayamo. Cienfuegos is one of the provinces of Cuba. The capital city of the province is also called Cienfuegos and was founded by French settlers in 1819 Holguín is one of the provinces of Cuba, the second most populous after Ciudad de la Habana. Villa Clara is one of the Provinces of Cuba. It's located in the central region of the island bordering with the Atlantic at north Matanzas Province by west Santiago de Cuba Province is the second most populated province in the island of Cuba. Sancti Spíritus is one of the Provinces of Cuba. Its capital is the identically named Sancti Spíritus. Guantánamo is the easternmost province of Cuba. Its capital is also called Guantánamo. The provinces of Cuba are divided into 169 municipalities or municipios.
Geography
Climate
| Climate chart for Casa Blanca, Havana | |||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| J | F | M | A | M | J | J | A | S | O | N | D |
64 26 19 | 69 26 19 | 46 28 20 | 54 29 21 | 98 30 22 | 182 31 23 | 106 31 24 | 100 32 24 | 144 31 24 | 181 29 23 | 88 28 21 | 58 27 20 |
| temperatures in °C • precipitation totals in mm source: Climate Charts[112] | |||||||||||
Imperial conversion | |||||||||||
Cuba is an archipelago of islands located in the Caribbean Sea, with the geographic coordinates 21°3N, 80°00W. An archipelago (ɑrkəˈpɛləgoʊ is a chain or cluster of Islands The word archipelago literally means "chief Sea " from Italian A geographic coordinate system enables every location on the Earth to be specified in three coordinates using mainly a spherical coordinate system. Cuba is the principal island, which is surrounded by four main groups of islands. These are the Colorados, the Sabana-Camagüey, the Jardines de la Reina and the Canarreos. The Colorados Archipelago (Archipiélago de los Colorados also called Archipiélago de Santa Isabel and Archipiélago de Guaniguanico) is a chain of isles and Jardines de la Reina (Gardens of the Queen is an archipelago in the southern part of Cuba, in the provinces of Camagüey and Ciego de Ávila. Canarreos Archipelago (Archipiélago de los Canarreos is an archipelago of Cuba. The main island of Cuba constitutes most of the nation's land area or 105,006 km² (40,543 sq mi) and is the seventeenth-largest island in the world by land area. This is a list of Islands in the world ordered by area. It includes all islands with an area greater than 2500 km² (970 square miles The second largest island in Cuba is the Isla de la Juventud (Isle of Youth) in the southwest, with an area of 3,056 km² (1,180 sq mi). Isla de la Juventud (lit Isle of Youth; until 1978 named Isla de Pinos – Pine Island is the second-largest Cuban Island and the sixth-largest Cuba has a total land area of 110,860 km² (42,803 sq mi).
The main island consists mostly of flat to rolling plains. At the southeastern end is the Sierra Maestra, a range of steep mountains whose highest point is the Pico Real del Turquino at 1,975 meters (6,480 ft). For the Cuban son bandsee Sierra Maestra (music. Sierra Maestra is a Mountain range that runs westward across the south of the old Oriente Province Pico Turquino is the highest point in Cuba. It is located in the southeast part of the island in the Sierra Maestra Mountain range in Santiago de The local climate is tropical, though moderated by trade winds. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of In general (with local variations), there is a drier season from November to April, and a rainier season from May to October. The average temperature is 21 °C in January and 27 °C in July. Cuba lies in the path of hurricanes, and these destructive storms are most common in September and October. Havana is the largest city and capital; other major cities include Santiago de Cuba and Camagüey. Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading Santiago de Cuba is the capital city of Santiago de Cuba Province in the south-eastern area of the island nation of Cuba Camagüey is a city and municipality in central Cuba and is the nation's third largest city Better known smaller towns include Baracoa which was the first Spanish settlement on Cuba, Trinidad, a UNESCO world heritage site, and Bayamo. Baracoa is a municipality and city in Guantánamo Province in extreme eastern Cuba. Trinidad is a town in the province of Sancti Spíritus, central Cuba. Bayamo is the capital city of the Granma Province of Cuba, and one of the largest cities in the Oriente region
Natural resources
The most important Cuban mineral economic resource is nickel. Cuba has the second largest nickel reserves in the world after Russia. Nickel (ˈnɪkəl is a metallic Chemical element with the symbol Ni and Atomic number 28 [113] Sherritt International, a Canadian energy company, operates a large nickel mining facility in Moa, Cuba. Sherritt International ( is a Canadian Energy company based in Toronto Ontario. Moa is a municipality and city in the Holguín Province of Cuba.
Another leading mineral resource is cobalt, a byproduct of nickel mining operations. Cobalt (ˈkoʊbɒlt is a hard lustrous silver-grey Metal, a Chemical element with symbol Co. Cuba ranks as the fifth largest producer of refined cobalt in the world. [113]
Recent oil exploration has revealed that the North Cuba Basin could produce approximately 4. 6 billion barrels (730,000,000 m³) to 9. 3 billion barrels (1,480,000,000 m³) of oil. As of 2006, Cuba has now started to test-drill these locations for possible exploitation. [114][115][116]
Education
Before and during the present government, Cuba has boasted some of the highest rates of education and literacy in the Americas. Education in Cuba is extremely subsidized at all levels In 1961 the government nationalized all private educational institutions and introduced a state-directed education system The University of Havana or UH (in Spanish, Universidad de La Habana) is a university located in the Vedado district of Havana [117][118][119] The Cuban state, through tax receipts, funds education for all Cuban citizens including university education. Private educational institutions are not permitted. School attendance is compulsory from ages six to the end of basic secondary education (normally at 15), and all students, regardless of age or gender, wear school uniforms with the color denoting grade level. Primary education lasts for six years, secondary education is divided into basic and pre-university education. Higher education is provided by universities, higher institutes, higher pedagogical institutes, and higher polytechnic institutes. Pedagogy (ˈpɛdəgɒdʒi or paedagogy is the Art or Science of being a Teacher. The University of Havana was founded in 1728 and there are a number of other well established colleges and universities. The University of Havana or UH (in Spanish, Universidad de La Habana) is a university located in the Vedado district of Havana The Cuban Ministry of Higher Education also operates a scheme of distance education which provides regular afternoon and evening courses in rural areas for agricultural workers. Education has a strong political and ideological emphasis, and students progressing to higher education are expected to have a commitment to the goals of the Cuban government. [120] Cuba has also provided state subsidized education to foreign nationals, including U. S. students, who are trained as doctors at the Latin American School of Medicine. Escuela Latinoamericana de Medicina ( ELAM) formerly Escuela Latinoamericana de Ciencias Médicas (in The program provides for full scholarships, including accommodation, and its graduates are meant to return to their countries to offer low-cost healthcare. [121][122] Internet access is limited[123]
It is required that all applicants to universities in Cuba gain a letter from the government (the "Committee for the Defence of the Revolution")[124] stating that they have a good "political and moral background" in order to apply. There have been claims that such letters are withheld because of an applicant (or relative) being politically undesirable. The validity of these claim or how often letters are refused is not easily verifiable and so there is no consensus on whether this amounts to widespread political oppression or just a few isolated cases.
Public health
The Cuban government operates a much-lauded national health system and assumes full fiscal and administrative responsibility for the health care of its citizens. The Cuban government operates a national health system and assumes fiscal and administrative responsibility for the Health care of its citizens Historically, Cuba has long ranked high in numbers of medical personnel and has made significant contributions to world health since the 19th century. [117] However after the Batista government fell in 1959, nearly half of Cuba's 6,000 to 6,500 physicians were among those who left the country, requiring the rebuilding of the health care system. [125] A network of community based primary health care clinics was built across the country with many new clinics in previously under-served rural areas. [126] The number of women doctors has increased dramatically and, as of 2001, women made up more than half the student body at Havana's medical school. [127]
Cuba stands out among third world nations in addressing children's health care. Whereas in most third world nations, death rates in the first five years greatly exceed those of developed nations, primarily due to malnutrition, diarrhea, and parasitic diseases, Cuba's epidemiological profile is closer to that of the United States or United Kingom. [128] Incidence of AIDS is the lowest in the western hemisphere, with each pregnant woman being tested for HIV/AIDS and receiving a full course of AZT produced in Cuba. [129] In 1992, Cuba ranked at the median level in the human development index created by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The key measurements were life expectancy, educational attainment, and per capita income. Of 174 nations indexed, Cuba ranked 30th in life expectancy with an average 75. 3 years, above Argentina, Chile, and Uruguay. It also ranked high in literacy but had only about half the per capita income of Chile, the Latin American leader in income. [130] According to World Health Organization (WHO) statistics, life expectancy and infant mortality rates in Cuba have been comparable to Western industrialized countries since such information was first gathered in 1957. According to the UNICEF Child Survival: State of the World's Children 2008 Report, Cuba ranks 175 among the world's nations in infant mortality, with 7 deaths per 1000 live births, with Canada ranking better at 180, and the United States ranking worse, at 174 with 8 deaths per 1000 live births. [6] [131]
In depth examination of WHO statistics for Cuba reveals that these statistics are prepared by each government[132] and published unchanged by WHO; thus they have been called into question. [133][7][8] Nevertheless, the CIA World Factbook cites life expectancy and infant mortality rates that are similar to those for the USA. [134] It is not clear what sources the CIA used for this, since the data presented seems to be equivalent to that published by the Cuban government; this has led to suggestions that material prepared by Ana Belen Montes (a convicted Castro government agent, arrested in 2001) is still being used by the CIA. Ana Belen Montes (Born February 28 1957 is a former senior analyst at the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA in the United States. [135] However, given the extensive and specific data, which have been promptly published in Cuba since 1970, the high rate of autopsies and the low number of deaths attributed to undefined causes (an important indicator for inaccurate vital statistics), a high level of confidence can be placed in Cuban health statistics. [136] Cuban officials have acknowledged that some health care indicators worsened during the 1990s after the loss of Soviet aid and while the United States embargo of health supplies remained in effect. [137]
A separate, second division of hospitals cares specifically for foreigners and diplomats. While tourists can get health care from public clinics on an emergency basis, they are expected to use a fee-for-service health care network called "Servimed" for non-emergency health care needs. There are about 40 Servimed health care centers across the island. [138] Many foreigners travel to Cuba for reliable and affordable health care.
Cuba provides medical care as foreign aid, providing free care to victims of disasters, including 16,000 victims of Chernobyl, and sends medical teams to scores of poor nations, numbering some 26,000 medical personnel as of 2005. [139] Teams of Cuban doctors have been sent to Haiti and the poorest nations of Africa to fight malaria, TB, and HIV. [140] In 1996, at the request of the South African government, Cuba sent 600 English-speaking doctors to make up for the shortfall caused by the emigration of South African doctors. [141] By 2002, 80 percent of the doctors in rural South Africa were Cuban. [142] Cuba has had up to ten percent of its doctors serving abroad, fielding more doctors than the World Health Organization. [143] Cuban doctors have won a reputation for being willing to endure primitive living conditions, for being able to improvise when equipment and supplies are lacking, and for maintaining warm relationships with the local population. [144]
Cuba spends about twice as much of its GDP on health care, about 6. 6%, as the Latin American average, maintaining a ratio, as of 2001, of one doctor per 150 families. [145] Nevertheless, Cuban doctors are not well-paid by international standards. The San Francisco Chronicle, The Washington Post, and NPR have all reported on Cuban doctors defecting to other countries. The San Francisco Chronicle was founded in 1865 as The Daily Dramatic Chronicle by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D [146][147][148]According to the San Francisco Chronicle, at least 63, and perhaps hundreds of the approximately 20,000 Cuban doctors sent to work in the barrios in Venezuela, have deserted, in part, because their salary in Cuba is only $15 per month. The San Francisco Chronicle was founded in 1865 as The Daily Dramatic Chronicle by teenage brothers Charles de Young and Michael H [149] The United States has announced a policy of preference for Cuban medical workers who seek asylum. [150]
Demographics
According to Cuba's Oficina Nacional de Estadisticas ONE 2002 Census, the Cuban population was 11,177,743,[151] including:
- 5,597,233 men and
- 5,580,510 women.
The racial make-up was 7,271,926 whites, 1,126,894 blacks and 2,778,923 mulattoes (or mestizos). [152] The Chinese population in Cuba is descended mostly from indentured laborers who arrived in the 19th century to build railroads and work in mines. An indentured servant is a form of Debt bondage worker The Laborer is under Contract of an Employer for some period of time usually three to The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body After the Industrial Revolution, many of these laborers stayed in Cuba because they could not afford return passage to China. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the
| Total | Men | Women | % Of Total | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| White | 7,271,926 | 3,618,349 | 3,653,577 | 65. 06% |
| Black | 1,126,894 | 593,876 | 533,018 | 10. 08% |
| Mulatto/Mestizo | 2,778,923 | 1,385,008 | 1,393,915 | 24. Mulatto is a term used to describe a person with one white parent and one black parent or a person whose Ancestry is a mixture of black and white Mestizo is a Spanish term that was coined during the Spanish Empire to refer to people of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry in Latin 86%[153] |
The population of Cuba has very complex origins and intermarriage between diverse groups is so general as to be the rule. The ancestry of White Cuban (65. Cubans (Cubanos are people inhabiting or originating from Cuba. 05%) comes primarily from the ethnically diverse Spanish nations:
During the 18th, 19th and early part of the 20th century, large waves of Canarian, Catalan, Andalusian, Galician and other Spanish people emigrated to Cuba. The Canarians are an Ethnic group or Nation living in the Archipelago of the Canary Islands (an autonomous community of The Catalans are the people from Catalonia, an Autonomous community of Spain, including people originating in that region but living elsewhere The Andalusians are an Ethnic group or Nation in Spain centered in Andalusia. The Galicians ( Galician: Galegos) are an Ethnic group or Nationality whose homeland is Galicia, which is a historical region Other European people that have contributed include:
Africans make up 10. Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion ( The Portuguese people (os Portugueses literally the Portuguese) are the Ethnic group or Nation native to the country of Portugal, in the west The' Italian people' are a Southern European Ethnic group located primarily in Italy, Switzerland, France and by virtue of a wide-ranging The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries 08% to 24. 86% of the population. The ancestry of Afro-Cubans comes primarily from the following:
People from Asia (2%):
Minor but significant ethnic influx is derived from diverse peoples from Middle East:
The Cuban government controls the movement of people into Havana on the grounds that the Havana metropolitan area (home to nearly 20% of the country's population) is overstretched in terms of land use, water, electricity, transportation, and other elements of the urban infrastructure. The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of African ancestry and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community The term black people usually refers to a racial group of Humans with dark Skin color, but the term has also been used to categorise a number of diverse The Bakongo or the Kongo people (meaning "hunter" also sometimes referred to as Congolese, live along the Atlantic coast of Africa A Chinese Cuban ( Cantonese Jyutping: Gu2 Baa1 Waa4 jan4 Spanish: chino-cubano) is a Cuban of Chinese Ancestry The Vietnamese people (người Việt or vi ''người Kinh'' are an Ethnic group originating from what is now northern Vietnam and southern China. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Jewish Cubans, Cuban Jews, or Cubans of Jewish heritage, have lived on the island of Cuba for centuries About 91% of the population of Lebanon is urban and comprises many different ethnic groups and religions including numerous Christian and Muslim sects Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn Syrians today are an overall indigenous Levantine people closely related to their immediate neighbours like the Lebanese and (to a lesser extent Jordanians There is a population of internal migrants to Havana nicknamed "Palestinos" (Palestinians); these mostly hail from the eastern region of Oriente. Oriente ( Spanish for "East" was one of six Provinces of Cuba until 1976 [155] Cuba also shelters a population of non-Cubans of unknown size. There is a population of several thousand North African teen and pre-teen refugees. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan [156]
Cuba's birth rate (9. Crude birth rate is the natality or Childbirths per 1000 people per year 88 births per thousand population in 2006)[157] is one of the lowest in the Western Hemisphere. The Western Hemisphere, also Western hemisphere or western hemisphere, is a geographical term for the half of the Earth that lies West Its overall population has increased continuously from around 7 million in 1961 to over 11 million now, but the rate of increase has stopped in the last few decades, and started falling in 2006, with a fertility rate of 1. 43 children per woman. [158] This drop in fertility is among the largest in the Western Hemisphere. [159] Cuba, which has unrestricted access to legal abortion, has an abortion rate of 58. An 6 per 1000 pregnancies in 1996 compared to a Caribbean average of 35, a Latin American average of 27 (the latter mostly illegally performed), and a European average of 48. Additionally, contraceptive use is estimated at 79% (in the upper third of countries in the Western Hemisphere). [160] With its high abortion rate, low birth rate, and aging population, Cuba's demographic profile more resembles those of former Communist Eastern European countries such as Poland or Ukraine rather than those of its Latin American and Caribbean neighbors; it is currently the only Latin American country with a shrinking population, although several Caribbean countries such as Guyana also do due to high levels of emigration. Guyana (ɡaɪˈænə or /ɡiːˈɑːnə/ officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana and previously known as British Guiana, is the only Nation state
Immigration and emigration have had noticeable effects on the demographic profile of Cuba during the 20th century. Between 1900 and 1930, close to a million Spaniards arrived from Spain; many of these and their descendants left after the Castro government took power. On a smaller scale, of thousands of Jewish immigrants who arrived prior during and after World War II, more than 90% have left Cuba. [161]
Exodus
The Cuban exodus has lasted almost half a century and has brought more than two million Cubans of all social classes to the United States. [162] Others have emigrated to Spain, Canada, Mexico, Sweden, and other countries. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. It still is standard procedure for the Cuban government to strip almost all property from most of those leaving the island. Many prominent Cubans, including artists, professionals, sports stars, etc. traveling abroad, have chosen to defect and seek asylum in other countries.
Since 1959 many Cubans have emigrated to Miami, Florida, where a vocal, well-educated and economically successful exile community exists formally called the Cuban-American lobby. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the Exile means to be away from one's home (ie city state or country while either being explicitly refused permission to return and/or being threatened by prison or death upon return The Cuban-American lobby is a general term for the various groups largely made up of Cuban exiles in the United States and their descendants who pressure the U [163] The exodus that occurred immediately after the Cuban Revolution was primarily of the upper and middle classes that were predominantly white. This contributed to a demographic shift back in Cuba. Exodus of 1980 demonstrated problems deriving from the lack of personal freedom and chronic economic austerity. [164] Seeking to normalize migration between the two countries—particularly after the chaos that accompanied the Mariel boatlift—Cuba and the United States in 1994 agreed, in what is commonly called the 1994 Clinton-Castro accords,[165] to limit emigration to the United States. The Mariel Boatlift was a mass movement of Cubans who departed from Cuba 's Mariel Harbor for the United States between April 15 and The United States grants a specific number of visas to those wishing to emigrate; 20,000 have been granted since 1994. Cubans picked up at sea trying to emigrate without a visa are returned to Cuba while those that make it to U. S. soil are allowed to seek asylum. [166] U. S. law gives the Attorney General the discretion to grant permanent residence to Cuban natives or citizens seeking adjustment of status if they have been present in the United States for at least one year after admission or parole and are admissible as immigrants;[167] In 2005 an additional 7,610 Cuban emigrants from Cuba entered the United States by September 30. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Citizens of Cuba must obtain an exit permit before they may leave the country legally. Human Rights Watch has criticized the Cuban restrictions on emigration and its alleged keeping of children as "hostages" in order to prevent defection by Cubans traveling abroad. Human Rights Watch is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Human rights. [168][169] Over the years, thousands of Cubans ("balseros") have attempted to escape across the Florida Strait to reach the United States with many succeeding (over a hundred thousand in the Mariel Boatlift alone). Balseros ( Rafters, from the Spanish "Balsa", Raft) is the name given to the persons who emigrate illegally in self constructed or precarious vessels The Mariel Boatlift was a mass movement of Cubans who departed from Cuba 's Mariel Harbor for the United States between April 15 and But it has been estimated that between 30,000 to 40,000 Cubans may have perished attempting to flee the island. [170] This has led to a safer route through Mexico where organized traffickers ferry asylum seekers for a price. Smuggling, also known as trafficking, is the clandestine transportation of goods or persons past a point where prohibited such as out of a building into a Prison See also Merchant ship A ferry is a form of transport usually a Boat or Ship, used to carry (or ferry) passengers and [166]
Religion
Cuba has many faiths representing the widely varying culture. Religion in Cuba reflects the island’s diverse cultural elements The Catedral de San Cristóbal de La Havana (Cathedral of Saint Christopher of Havana is the seat of Jaime Lucas Ortega y Alamino, the Cardinal Archbishop of Havana Catholicism was brought to the island by the Spanish, and is the most dominant faith. As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described After Fidel Castro took over, Cuba became atheistic and punished religious practice. Atheism Since the Fourth Cuban Communist Party Congress in 1991, restrictions have been eased and, according to the National Catholic Observer, direct challenges by state institutions to the right to religion have all but disappeared,[171] though the church still faces restrictions of written and electronic communication, and can only accept donations from state-approved funding sources. [171] The Roman Catholic Church is made up of the Cuban Catholic Bishops' Conference (COCC), led by Juan García Rodríguez, Archbishop of Camaguey. Juan Garcia Rodriguez is the current Archbishop of Camagüey and president of the Conferencia de Obispos Catolicos de Cuba the Cuban Conference of Catholic Bishop [172] It has eleven dioceses, 56 orders of nuns and 24 orders of priests. In January 1998, Pope John Paul II paid a historic visit to the island, invited by the Cuban government and Catholic Church. Pope
The religious landscape of Cuba is also strongly marked by syncretisms of various kinds. Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought This diversity derives from West and Central Africans who were transported to Cuba, and in effect reinvented their African religions. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Central Africa is a core Region of the African Continent often considered to include Burundi, the Central African Republic, Chad Religion in Africa is multifaceted Most Africans adhere to either Christianity or Islam. They did so by combining them with elements of the Catholic belief system, with a result very similar to Brazilian Umbanda. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Basic beliefs and practices The Umbanda creeds and practices are an eclectic mixture from three main sources from Catholicism Umbanda adopted the ideas of Catholicism is often practised in tandem with Santería, a mixture of Catholicism and other, mainly African, faiths that include a number of cult religions. Santería, also known as La Regla de Lukumi (Lukumi's Rule and The Way of the Saints is an Afro-Cuban religious tradition derived from traditional beliefs Cuba's patron saint, La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre (the Virgin of Cobre) is a syncretism with the Santería goddess Ochún. The important religious festival "La Virgen de la Caridad del Cobre" is celebrated by Cubans annually on 8 September. Events 70 - Roman forces under Titus sack Jerusalem. 1264 - The Statute of Kalisz Other religions practised are Palo Monte, and Abakuá, which have large parts of their liturgy in African languages. Palo, or Las Reglas de Congo are a group of closely related denominations or religions of largely Bantu origin developed by slaves from Central Africa in Abakua or Abakuá (various spellings are used is an Afro-Cuban men's initiatory fraternity or Secret society, which originated from fraternal associations
Protestantism, introduced from the United States in the 18th century, has seen a steady increase in popularity. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. 300,000 Cubans belong to the island's 54 Protestant denominations. Pentecostalism has grown rapidly in recent years, and the Assemblies of God alone claims a membership of over 100,000 people. Pentecostalism is a renewalist religious movement within Christianity that places special emphasis on the direct personal experience of God through the Baptism The World Assemblies of God Fellowship, or Assemblies of God for short is the world's largest Pentecostal denomination with over 283413 churches and outstations The Episcopal Church of Cuba claims 10,000 adherents. The Iglesia Episcopal de Cuba (Spanish for Episcopal Church of Cuba) consists of forty-six Parishes and about ten thousand members Cuba has small communities of Jews, Muslims and members of the Bahá'í Faith. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Bahá'í Faith is a Religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind [173] Havana has just three active synagogues and no mosque. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger [174] Most Jewish Cubans are descendants of Polish and Russian Ashkenazi Jews who fled pogroms at the beginning of the 20th century. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ A pogrom is a form of Riot directed against a particular group whether ethnic religious or other and characterized by destruction of their Homes Businesses There is, however, a sizeable number of Sephardic Jews in Cuba, who trace their origin to Turkey (primarily Istanbul and Thrace). Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey Thrace (Тракия Trakiya or "Trakija" or Trakia, Θράκη Thráki, Trakya is a historical and geographic area in southeast Europe Most of these Sephardic Jews live in the provinces, although they maintain a synagogue in Havana. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of In the 1960s, almost 8,000 Jews left for Miami. In the 1990s, approximately 400 Jewish Cubans relocated to Israel in a co-ordinated exodus using visas provided by nations sympathetic to their desire to move to Israel. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics.
Culture
Cuban culture is much influenced by the fact that it is a melting pot of cultures, primarily those of Spain and Africa. The culture of Cuba is a complex mixture of different often contrasting factors and influences The culture of Cuba is a complex mixture of different often contrasting factors and influences The melting pot is an analogy for the way in which homogeneous societies develop in which the ingredients in the pot (people of different cultures races and religions are It has produced more than its fair share of literature, including the output of non-Cubans Stephen Crane, Graham Greene and Ernest Hemingway
Sport is Cuba's national passion. Stephen Crane (November 1 1871 &ndash June 5 1900 was an American novelist short story writer poet and journalist Henry Graham Greene OM, CH (2 October 1904 &ndash 3 April 1991 was an English writer best known as a novelist but who also produced Short stories Ernest Miller Hemingway (July 21 1899 — July 2 1961 was an American novelist short-story writer, and Journalist. Due to historical associations with the United States, many Cubans participate in sports which share popularity in North America, rather than sports traditionally promoted in other Latin American nations. Baseball is by far the most popular; other sports and pastimes in Cuba include basketball, volleyball, cricket, and athletics. Baseball is the official sport of Cuba. The Early years (1864 - 1874 Baseball was introduced to Cuba in the 1860s by Cubans who studied in the Basketball is a team Sport in which two teams of five active players each try to score points against one another by propelling a ball through a 10 feet (3 m Volleyball is an Olympic team sport in which two teams of 6 active players (5 normal players and one 'libero' are separated by a net that is usually four feet Cricket is a bat-and-ball team Sport that originated in England and is now played in more than 100 countries Cuba is the dominant force in amateur boxing, consistently achieving high gold medal tallies in major international competitions. Amateur boxing is practiced at the collegiate level at the Olympic Games and Commonwealth Games, and in many other venues sponsored by amateur Boxing associations The government of Cuba however, will not be sending competitors to the "World Boxing Championships, based in the U. S. city of Chicago from October 21 to November 3; this to avoid the "theft" of athletes. Events 1512 - Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg. Events 644 - Umar ibn al-Khattab, the second Muslim Caliph, is killed by a Persian slave in Medina. the Cuban government official newspaper alleges:
- " As our people are all too well aware, the theft of anyone who stands out in Cuban society, whether s/he is an athlete, educationalist, doctor, artist, or any kind of scientist, has been the practice of various U. S. governments within that country's constant policy of aggression against our people. That felony was instigated at the very triumph of the Revolution in 1959 with the exit of thousands of doctors and engineers. "[175]
Cuban music is very rich and is the most commonly known expression of culture. The Caribbean island of Cuba has developed a wide range of creolized musical styles based on its cultural origins in Europe and Africa The "central form" of this music is Son, which has been the basis of many other musical styles like salsa, rumba and mambo and an upbeat derivation of the rumba, the cha-cha-cha. Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Latin American Caribbean genre that is popular across Latin America and among Latinos abroad In Cuban music, Rumba is a generic term covering a variety of musical rhythms and associated dances Mambo is a Cuban musical form and Dance style The word mambo (which means conversation with the gods) is the name of a priestess in Haitian Rumba music originated in early Afro-Cuban culture. The term Afro-Cuban refers to Cubans of African ancestry and to historical or cultural elements in Cuba thought to emanate from this community The Tres was also invented in Cuba, but other traditional Cuban instruments are of African and/or Taíno origin such as the maracas, güiro, marímba and various wooden drums including the mayohuacan. For the Italian commune see Tres Italy. Tres (Templi Resurgentes Equites Synarchici is also the name of a fictional Secret society in the novel Foucault's Neo-taino nations are defined here as the assorted nations of the Caribbean islands that together with the Tainos were described on the arrival of European chroniclers or which arose after this Maraca is also a genus of Tarantula. Maracas ( sometimes called rumba The güiro is a Percussion instrument consisting of an open-ended hollow Gourd with parallel notches cut in one side In some parts of Africa the term "marimba" refers to the Kalimba. The drum is a member of the percussion group technically classified as a Membranophone. A Mayohuacan was a wooden drum played by the indigenous Taíno people of the Caribbean. Popular Cuban music of all styles has been enjoyed and praised widely across the world. Cuban classical music, which includes music with strong African and European influences, and features symphonic works as well as music for soloists, has also received international acclaim thanks to composers like Ernesto Lecuona. Ernesto Lecuona y Casado ( August 6, 1895 Guanabacoa, Havana, Cuba - November 29, 1963 Santa Cruz de Tenerife
Havana, the Cuban capitol, was the heart of the rap scene in Cuba when it began in the 1990s. Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading During that time, reggaetón was also growing in popularity. Reggaeton (also spelled reggaetón, and known as reguetón and reggaetón in Spanish) is a form of urban music which became popular The formation of Cubanitos in 2002 by ex-members of pioneering “underground” rap group Primera Base was a pivotal moment in the emergence of reggaetón in the capital and a watershed in Cuban rap. Reggaeton (also spelled reggaetón, and known as reguetón and reggaetón in Spanish) is a form of urban music which became popular In the wake of this successful bid for a higher commercial profile, most rappers have followed one of two paths: dancing with the enemy and embracing reggaetón, or resisting the new genre vociferously. The resisters deride reggaetón for being trite and mindless, for promoting pointless diversion and dancing over social commitment and reflection with its lack of meaningful lyrics. Reggaeton (also spelled reggaetón, and known as reguetón and reggaetón in Spanish) is a form of urban music which became popular Rap, on the other hand, was seen as a way to lyrically express their opinions about things such as racism, sexism, peace, the environment, sexuality, poverty and social inequalities. Despite this controversy, reggaetón has become the dominant form of popular music among Cuban youth. Reggaeton (also spelled reggaetón, and known as reguetón and reggaetón in Spanish) is a form of urban music which became popular The relationship between Cuban rap and reggaetón continues to be debated today. Rapping (also known as emceeing, MCing, spitting, or just rhyming) is the Rhythmic spoken delivery of Rhymes wordplay and Reggaeton (also spelled reggaetón, and known as reguetón and reggaetón in Spanish) is a form of urban music which became popular [176][177]
In addition, Cuban reggaeton has in the mind of conventional musicians of Cuba, "sold out" on their established culture. Prior to reggaeton, Cuba had a long established professionalism in music towards the early and mid 90's. The release and popular acceptance of reggaeton has created many openings for those with little or no experience in music. Music in Cuba is not the same as it was before, and much of the new artists that are exposing their creations now utilize electronics, synthetic sounds and technology to create music that was otherwise unheard of. This, created much dissent among the professionalized music industry within Cuba. [176]
Dance within Cuba has taken a major boost over the 1990s. Although lyrics may be censored, bodily movements and provocative dance can not be. Provocative dance allows inhabitants to free the mind and allows people of all social classes to rebel against the political and social injustices within the period. Although this has strayed from the conventional rap, bodily usage has become a commonly accepted form of rebellion among the young communities. Particularly "Perreo", an exotic and slightly different form grinding, has become one of the most accepted forms of dancing in clubs and music videos. [178]
Cuban literature began to find its voice in the early 19th century. Cuban literature began to find its voice in the early 19th century Dominant themes of independence and freedom were exemplified by José Martí, who led the Modernist movement in Cuban literature. Writers such as Nicolás Guillén and Jose Z. Nicolás Cristóbal Guillén Batista ( 10 July 1902 &ndash 16 July 1989) was an Afro-Cuban Poet. Tallet focused on literature as social protest. The poetry and novels of José Lezama Lima have also been influential. José Lezama Lima ( December 19, 1910 in Havana, Cuba - August 8, 1976 in Havana Cuba was a Cuban writer and Writers such as Reinaldo Arenas, Guillermo Cabrera Infante, and more recently Daína Chaviano, Pedro Juan Gutiérrez, Zoé Valdés, and Leonardo Padura have earned international recognition in the postrevolutionary era, though many of these writers have felt compelled to continue their work in exile due to ideological control of media by the Cuban authorities. Reinaldo Arenas ( July 16, 1943 &ndash December 7, 1990) was a Cuban Poet, Novelist, and Playwright Guillermo Cabrera Infante ( April 22, 1929 &ndash February 21, 2005) was a Cuban Novelist, Essayist, Translator Daina Chaviano (born 1962 Havana) is a Cuban Writer. She earned her B Pedro Juan Gutiérrez (b 1950 in Matanzas) is a Cuban journalist writer and artist Zoé Valdés (born 1959) is a Cuban Writer. She studied in the Instituto Superior Pedagógico Enrique José Varona, but never graduated Leonardo Padura Fuentes (born 1955) is a Cuban Novelist and journalist.
Cuban cuisine is a fusion of Spanish and Caribbean cuisines. Cuban cuisine is a fusion of Spanish, African and Caribbean cuisines Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish and African cooking with Spanish cuisine consists of a variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography culture and climate Caribbean cuisine is a fusion of African, Amerindian, British, Spanish, French, Dutch, Indian. Cuban recipes share spices and techniques with Spanish cooking, with some Caribbean influence in spice and flavor. Now food rationing, which has been the norm in Cuba for the last four decades, restricts the common availability of these dishes. [179] Traditional Cuban meal would not be served in courses; rather all food items would be served at the same time. The typical meal could consist of plantains, black beans and rice, ropa vieja (shredded beef), Cuban bread, pork with onions, and tropical fruits. The plantain is a crop in the genus Musa and is generally used for cooking in contrast to the soft sweet Banana (which is sometimes called the Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows Cuban bread is a fairly simple white Bread, similar to French bread and Italian bread, but has a slightly different cooking method and ingredient list (in Pork' is the Culinary name for Meat from the domestic Pig ( Sus scrofa) often specifically the fresh meat but can be used as an all-inclusive Organicsalsajpg||thumb|right|Onions used in salsa.]]Cooked onions in frying pan The Tropics are centered on the Equator and limited in Latitude by the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere at approximately 23°26' (23 The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Black beans and rice, referred to as Platillo Moros y Cristianos (or moros for short), and plantains are staples of the Cuban diet. Platillo Moros y Cristianos (or simply moros or moro) is the National dish of Cuba, their version of the Rice and beans combination Many of the meat dishes are cooked slowly with light sauces. Garlic, cumin, oregano and bay leaves are the dominant spices. Allium sativum L, commonly known as garlic, is a species in the Onion family Alliaceae. Oregano or ( Origanum vulgare) is a species of Origanum, native to Europe, the Mediterranean region and southern and central Asia Bay leaf (plural bay leaves) Greek Daphni, Romanian Foi de Dafin; is the aromatic leaf of several Species of the Laurel family ( Lauraceae
Economy
The Cuban Government adheres to socialist principles in organizing its largely state-controlled planned economy. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. A planned economy or directed economy is an Economic system in which the Government or Workers' councils manages the Economy. Most of these means of production are owned and run by the government and most of the labor force is employed by the state. Recent years have seen a trend towards more private sector employment. By the year 2006, public sector employment was 78% and the private sector at 22% compared to the 1981 ratio of 91. 8% to 8. 2%. [180] Capital investment is restricted and requires approval by the government. The Cuban government sets most prices and rations goods to citizens. Moreover, any firm wishing to hire a Cuban must pay the Cuban government, which in turn will pay the company's employee in Cuban pesos.
While the form of government of Cuba is theoretically opposed to class privilege, preferential treatment exists for those who are members of the Communist Party or who hold positions of power within the government. [181] Access to transportation, work, housing, university education and better health care are a function of status within the government or the Communist Party. [182]
Starting in the late 1980s, the Soviet subsidies for Cuba's state-run economy started to dry up. Before the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba depended on Moscow for sheltered markets for its exports and substantial aid. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of The Soviets had been paying above-market prices for Cuban sugar, while providing Cuba with petroleum at below-market prices. The removal of these subsidies sent the Cuban economy into a rapid depression known in Cuba as the Special Period. The Special Period in Peacetime ( Período especial en tiempo de paz) in Cuba was an extended period of Economic Crisis that began in At one point, Cuba received subsidies amounting to six billion dollars. In 1992, the United States tightened the trade embargo. Some believe that this may have contributed to a drop in Cuban living standards which approached crisis point within a year. [183]
Like some other Communist and post-Communist states following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Cuba took limited free market-oriented measures to alleviate severe shortages of food, consumer goods, and services to make up for the ending of Soviet subsidies. These steps included allowing some self-employment in certain retail and light manufacturing sectors, the legalization of the use of the U.S. dollar in business, and the encouragement of tourism. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been Tourism in Cuba attracts over 2 million people a year and is one of the main sources of revenue for the island In 1996 tourism surpassed the sugar industry as the largest source of hard currency for Cuba. Cuba has tripled its market share of Caribbean tourism in the last decade, with large investment in tourism infrastructure this growth rate is predicted to continue. [184] 1. 9 million tourists visited Cuba in 2003 predominantly from Canada and the European Union, generating revenue of $2. 1 billion. [185] The rapid growth of tourism during the Special Period had widespread social and economic repercussions in Cuba. This has led to speculation of the emergence of a two-tier economy[186] and the fostering of a state of tourist apartheid on the island. Tourism in Cuba attracts over 2 million people a year and is one of the main sources of revenue for the island [187]
The Cuban government has significantly developed its medical tourism capabilities as a key means to generate income for the country. Medical tourism (also called medical travel, health tourism or global healthcare is a term initially coined by travel agencies and the Mass media For many years, Cuba has operated a special division of hospitals that treated foreigners and diplomats while excluding Cubans. Every year, thousands of European, Latin American, Canadian and American consumers with hard cash visit to access medical care services at up to 80 percent less than U. S. costs. There are some who criticize Cuba's medical tourism industry because ordinary Cubans do not have access to the kind of quality healthcare that medical tourists receive. [188] {{Copyvio link|date=January 2008}[[189]
Since 1959, Cuba has experienced slow growth in its Gross Domestic Product relative to other countries that were in a similar situation in the 1950s,[190] stagnant trade. [191] and amassed a significant debt amounting to some 16. 62 billion in convertible currency and 15 to 20 billion dollars with Russia. [192][193][194] Cuban citizens themselves have experienced a decrease in their caloric intake and a shortage of housing.
For some time now, Cuba has been experiencing a housing shortage because of the state's failure to keep pace with increasing demand. [195] Moreover, the government instituted food rationing policies in 1962, which were exacerbated following the collapse of the Soviet Union and, according to supporters of the government, the tightening of the US embargo. As late as 2001, studies have shown that the average Cuban's standard of living was lower than before the downturn of the post-Soviet period. The standard of living refers to the quality and quantity of goods and services available to people and the way these goods and services are distributed within a population Paramount issues have been state salaries failing to meet personal needs under the state rationing system chronically plagued with shortages. Rationing in Cuba refers to the system of food distribution known in Cuba as the Libreta de Abastecimiento ("Supplies booklet" As the variety and amount of rationed goods available declined, Cubans increasingly turned to the black market to obtain basic food, clothing, household, and health amenities. The informal sector is characterized by what many Cubans call sociolismo. Sociolismo also known as amiguismo meaning "friend-ism" or "partner-ism" is the informal term used in Cuba to describe In addition, petty corruption in state industries, such as the pilferage of state assets to sell on the black market, is still common. [196] In recent years, since the rise of Venezuela's Socialist President Hugo Chávez, Venezuelan economic aid has enabled Cuba to improve economically. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. Venezuela's assistance of the Cuban economy comes chiefly through its supply of up to 80,000 barrels (13,000 m³) of oil per day in exchange for professional services and agricultural products. In the last several years, Cuba has rolled back some of the market oriented measures undertaken in the 1990s. In 2004, Cuban officials publicly backed the Euro as a "global counter-balance to the U. Please update other articles as well to avoid contradiction within Wikipedia e S. dollar", and eliminated the US currency from circulation in its stores and businesses. Increased US government restrictions on travel by Cuban-Americans and on the numbers of dollars they could transport to Cuba strengthened Cuban government control over dollars circulating in the economy. A Cuban American ( Cubanoamericano) is a United States citizen who traces his or her "national origin" to Cuba. In the last decade, Cubans had received between US$600 million and US$1 billion annually, mostly from family members in the U. S. [185] This number is influenced by the fact that U. S. government forbids its citizens to send more than $1,200 to Cuba to immediate family members, and then only once per year.
In 2005 Cuba exported $2. 4 billion, ranking 114 of 226 world countries, and imported $6. 9 billion, ranking 87 of 226 countries. [197] Its major export partners are the Netherlands 18. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands 5%, Canada 18. 5%, China 16%, Bermuda 14. 1%, Spain 5. 1%; major import partners are Venezuela 27%, China 15. 8%, Spain 9. 7%, Germany 6. 5%, Canada 5. 6%, Italy 4. 4%, US 4. 4% (2006). [198] Cuba's major exports are sugar, nickel, tobacco, fish, medical products, citrus, and coffee;[199] imports include food, fuel, clothing, and machinery. In Economics, an export is any good or Commodity, Transported from one country to another country in a Legitimate fashion Cuba presently holds debt in an amount estimated to be $13 billion,[200] approximately 38% of GDP. [201] According to the Heritage Foundation, Cuba is dependent on credit accounts that rotate from country to country. The Heritage Foundation is an American conservative Think tank. [202] Cuba's prior 35% supply of the world's export market for sugar has declined to 10% due to a variety of factors, including a global sugar commodity price drop making Cuba less competitive on world markets. [203] At one time, Cuba was the world's most important sugar producer and exporter. As a result of diversification, underinvestment and natural disasters, however, Cuba's sugar production has seen a drastic decline. In 2002, more than half of Cuba's sugar mills were shut down. Cuba's most recent sugar harvest of 1. 1 million metric tons was its worst in nearly one hundred years, comparable only to those of 1903 and 1904. Cuba holds 6. 4% of the global market for nickel[204] which constitutes about 25% of total Cuban exports. Nickel (ˈnɪkəl is a metallic Chemical element with the symbol Ni and Atomic number 28 [205] Recently, large reserves of oil were found in the North Cuba Basin[206] leading US Congress members Jeff Flake and Larry Craig to call for a repeal of the US embargo of Cuba. An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is The United States Congress is the bicameral Legislature of the federal government of the United States of America, consisting of two houses Jeffrey "Jeff" Flake (born December 31, 1962) an American politician has been a Republican member of the United States Larry Edwin Craig (born July 20, 1945) is an American politician from the state of Idaho. [9]
Military
Under Fidel Castro, and partially because of invasions, assassination attempts and terrorist attacks, Cuba became a highly militarized society. Military of Cuba Military manpower From 1975 until the late 1980s, massive Soviet military assistance enabled Cuba to upgrade its military capabilities. Since the loss of Soviet subsidies Cuba has dramatically scaled down the numbers of military personnel, from 235,000 in 1994 to about 60,000 in 2003. [207] The government now spends roughly 1. 7% of GDP on military expenditures. The present Minister for the Revolutionary Armed Forces (FAR) is Julio Casas Regueiro, as a consequence of Raul Castro becoming President of the country. General Julio Casas Regueiro (born February 16, 1936 in Santiago de Cuba, Cuba) is a Cuban politician
See also
References
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- ^ Sonic. net. 1992 coin. Retrieved on 2006-09-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a
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- ^ Atlapedia. Cuba.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Cuba. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ National Symbols, DTCuba, <http://www.dtcuba.com/CubaInfoDetails.aspx?c=9&lng=2>. Retrieved on 9 February 2008
- ^ www. alfredcarrada. org/notes8. html
- ^ members. dandy. net/~orocobix/terms1. htm
- ^ Gott, Richard : Cuba A New History. Yale University Press. p13
- ^ Andrea A. J. , Overfield O. H. (2005). The Human Record, Vol 1; Letter by Christopher Columbus concerning recently discovered islands, P8. ISBN 0-618-37040-4.
- ^ AFP 2007 (accessed 11-18 2007) Arqueología Hallazgo podría dar pistas sobre primeros habitantes de la Isla. Cuba en el Encuentro, jueves 15 de noviembre de 2007 http://www.cubaencuentro.com/es “"oficialmente se habla de la presencia de los primeros humanos (en Cuba) en un periodo que oscila entre 6. 000 y 8. 000 años". ”
- ^ Image: Greenstone zoomorphic amulet in form of Condor of the Andes, University of Cambridge, <http://museum.archanth.cam.ac.uk/IACA.WWW/amulet.htm>. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ The Rise and Fall of Smallpox
- ^ The Story Of… Smallpox—and other Deadly Eurasian Germs
- ^ The Times Thursday, September 01, 1825 London, Middlesex NASSAU (NEW PROVIDENCE), “June 4,-By an arrival from the coast of Cuba, we learn that His Majesty's schooner Speedwell accompanied by several barges from other vessels of war, is engaged in securing a key near Cayo Romano (off North Coast of Cuba), where a number of pirates had secreted themselves in the woods. Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 1825 ( MDCCCXXV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Some small craft, which the pirates had used in their cruises, were captured by the barges; and with the assistance of some chasseurs which the Spanish Government at Principe had furnished for the purpose, it was expected the pirates would be hunted out of their lurking-places.
- ^ The North Carolina Standard; Wednesday. April 6, 1859. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common …facts are drawn from the official report on the " Commercial Relations of the United States with all Nations", prepared at the State Department and published by order of Congress, we imported from Cuba in 1838 as follows: Molasses, $3,051,1515; sugar, $15,555,409.
- ^ Historia de las Guerras de Liberación de Cuba.
- ^ The Little War (La Guerra Chiquita).
- ^ Anne Applebaum. Gulag: A History of the German Concentration Camps. "the first modern concentration camps were set up not in Germany or Russia, but in colonial Cuba, in 1895. In that year, to put an end to local insurgencies, imperial Spain began to prepare a policy of reconcentratión, intended to remove Cuban peasants from their land and 'reconcentrate' them in camps, depriving the insurgents of food, shelter and support. By 1900, the Spanish term reconcentratión had already been translated into English, and was used to describe a British project, initiated for similar reasons, during the Boer War in South Africa. "
- ^ The Spanish-American War. Cuban Reconcentration Policy and its Effects. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ Republic of Cuba, maXic. to, citing "Report published in Document 207 of President McKinley's Message to the 55 Senate Appendix "F": Report on the Destruction of the USS Maine, 1898 available in New York Public Library. ", <http://suche.maxic.to/lexikon_Cuba_en.html#_ref-16>. Retrieved on 22 January 2008
- ^ a b Official Report of the Naval Court of Inquiry into the loss of the Battleship MAINE (Sampson Board), spanamwar. com, March 22, 1898, <http://www.spanamwar.com/mainerpt.htm>. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. Year 1898 ( MDCCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Retrieved on 22 January 2008
- ^ Charles W. Eliot, ed. (May 2, 2001), “45. Recognition of the Independence of Cuba (1898)”, Harvard Classics, Vol. 43: American Historical Documents, 1000–1904, vol. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. 43 of 51, New York: Bartleby. com, <http://www.bartleby.com/43/45.html>. Retrieved on 8 January 2008
- ^ Samuels, Peggy and Harold. Remembering the Maine. (Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1995).
- ^ McMorrow, Edward P. (accessed 10-27-07) What Destroyed the USS MAINE - An opinion. part 1, part 2
- ^ a b de La Cova, Antonio Rafael 2007 The Moncada Attack: Birth of the Cuban Revolution. University of South Carolina Press ISBN-10 1570036721 ISBN-13 978-1570036729
- ^ Middletown Daily Times-Press 2006 Palma will Resign Beaten President to Call Special Session of congress and Give Up His Seat. Middletown Daily Times-Press Wednesday, September 26, 1906 Middletown, New York, page 2. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a Year 1906 ( MCMVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting “… All the Members of the cabinet and the heads of departments have presented resignations to President Palma. He has accepted them, but the officers will retain their positions until the resignation of the president has been presented to congress. O’Farrill secretary of state and justice, said their probably would be a government by a commission appointed by the American government. He mentioned Senor Barreiro chief justice of court and General Mario Menocal as commissioners. …”
- ^ a b Thomas, Hugh (March 1971). Hugh Thomas Baron Thomas of Swynnerton (born October 21, 1931 in Windsor) is a British Historian. Cuba; the Pursuit of Freedom. New York: Harper & Row, pp283-287. ISBN 0060142596.
- ^ Sources include Portuondo Linares, Serafin 1950 Los Independientes de Color. Historia del Partido Independiente de Color. Direccion de Cultura. Havana. (Fermoselle Lopez, Rafael 1974. Politica y Color in Cuba, La Guerrita de 1912. Ediciones Geminis Montevideo. Other sources give peripheral mention to burning of property at that time
- ^ there are the physical acts of arson, in intent and action indistiguishable from the recent Balkan ethnic cleansing. Take for example the incident a La Maya (Fermoselle pp. 243-245) where the town was Take for example the incident a La Maya (Portuondo pp. 243-245) where the town was burned including houses bought by Mambi "de color" using their pensions.
- ^ Officially the PIC wanted merely an armed protest to remove La Ley Morua. However, Fermoselle ( p. 199) has a cryptic sentence at the end of his book. "Seria interesante saber si el PIC fue influido por ideas nationalistas generadas en otras islas del Caribe. " However, there it the famous letter of Evaristo Estenoz "Todo hombre de color que no mate instaneamente al cobarde agresor que lo veje en un establecimineto publico, es un miserable indigno de ser hombre, que deshonra a su patria y a su raza" (Portuondo p. 56)
- ^ Dutcher, Rodney (NEA) 1933 Machado Fights Terrorists With Terror To Hold Iron-Handed Foes: of "ABC” Copy Gangster Methods to Rid Island of Despot Who Has Ruled Since-1924 Syracuse Herald Friday evening, April 28, 1933. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1933 ( MCMXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Front Page “Terrorism has been met "with terrorism in this unique outbreak waged mostly by students and young intellectuals who brand Machado as a tyrant. On one side is the "ABC", secret terrorist, organization that has copied the methods of gangsters in the fine art of assassination. On the other side are Machado's strong-armed and equally, ruthless secret police. Murder has followed murder in a series of spectacular killings. The Law of Flight Typical were assassinations of Dr Clemente Vasquez Bella, president of the Cuban Senate and political ally of Machedo, and Capt. Miguel Calvo former head of the secret police Both were slain on busy throughfares, in daylight, by men who dashed past in autos firing shot guns. Many members, or suspected members of the "ABC" have been slain by the secret police in equally ruthless manner. Often, those killings have been defended on the ground that the victims preferred death to capture, though the evidence. In many cases Is not convincing. One police official alone is accused of 40 official assassinations. Police have also defended killings on the ground that the ley de fuga (law of flight) recognized the right of an officer to shoot an escaping prisoner. But, according to witnesses, prisoners have been released told to flee and then shot down they ran. Bombing has been common. Incendiary fires have destroyed much property. Great numbers of political prisoners have been jailed. President Machado, whose life has been threatened many times, is heavily guarded by soldiers and machine gun crews in his palace. He rides to and from his country estate in a bullet-proof auto, under escort of soldiers armed with rifles and machine guns. NEXT: Cuba economic distress and America's vast stake on the Island
- ^ Argote-Freyre, Frank, 2006 Fulgencio Batista: Volume 1, From Revolutionary to Strongman. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey ISBN 978-0813537010 p. 50 and later explained by the communists themselves in: Massón Sena, Caridad 2004 (accessed 6-9-07) Dos visiones sobre el nacionalismo y las alianzas: Mella y Villena. Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo de la Cultura Cubana “Juan Marinello”. La Habana, Cuba. http://168.96.200.17/ar/libros/cuba/marin/nacion.rtf. “ Según explicara Fabio Grobart a posteriori: “ Esta miopía política se reflejó también en una errónea conclusión que los dirigentes del Partido sacaron, de la justa apreciación de que sustituir a Machado por un gobierno de la oposición burgués-terrateniente significaba dejar a Cuba en su estado de semicolonia y a las masas populares en la misma miseria y esclavitud y que únicamente un gobierno de trabajadores podía producir los cambios radicales que el país necesitaba /. . . /Dicha a conclusión fue profundamente falsa por ser mecánica, por no basarse en un análisis correcto del desarrollo dialéctico de la situación y, esencialmente, por no tener en cuenta que las masas revolucionarias, enardecidas por la victoria sobre Machado y orientadas en su acción por una justa política de su vanguardia marxista-leninista, sí podría asegurar los cambios profundos, es decir, la realización del programa agrario-antimperialista, por el cual abogaba y luchaba desde su fundación el Partido Comunista. (22)” Reference 22 is Fabio Grobart, 1985, p. 93, This author also refers in this regard to Leonel Soto, 1977, vol. II, p. 8
- ^ Dallin, David J 1955 Soviet espionage, Yale University Press New Haven ASIN B0007DVJ8M pp. 394 and 198-203
- ^ José Alvarez (2004), “Cuban Agriculture Before 1959: The Social Situation”, Cuba's Agricultural Sector, University Press of Florida, ISBN 0813027543
"Law No. 5 created the Banco de Fomento Agrícola e Industrial de Cuba (BANFAIC), which was enacted on December 20, 1950, by President Carlos Prío Socarrás. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. (In fact, Law No. 13 of 1948, establishing Cuba's national bank, envisioned an agricultural bank as a necessary complement. ) Law No. 15 of 1949 authorized the issuance of $200 million in bonds. Of the $25 million going to BANFAIC, an equal distribution went to the agricultural and industrial branches. … It is clearly stated in the ACU study: “The city of Havana is living an epoch of extraordinary prosperity, while in the countryside, people, especially the agricultural workers, are living in sluggish, miserable, and desperate conditions too difficult to believe” (Gastón et al. , 1957, p. 6). Thus it is obvious that the living conditions in the city of Havana, and perhaps in a few other urban areas of Cuba, did not parallel those described in this fact sheet for the countryside. " - ^ Fidel Castro and the 26th of July Movement
- ^ Fidel Castro, Dictator of the Month December, 2004
- ^ CIA conspired with mafia to kill Castro | World news | The Guardian
- ^ Meyer Lansky
- ^ Familia Chibás > Raul Antonio Chibás > Manifiesto Sierra Maestra
- ^ Thomas E. Bogenschild (January 30, 2008), Dr. Castro's Princeton Visit, April 20-21, 1959, Princeton University: Program in Latim American Studies, <http://www.princeton.edu/~plas/publications/Essays/castro.html>. Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Retrieved on 30 January 2008
- ^ [ttp://www. amigospais-guaracabuya. org/oagsg022. php
- ^ Cuba and the Council on Foreign Relations
- ^ In Bed With Castro
- ^ Lazo, Mario, American Policy Failures in Cuba--Dagger in the Heart! 1970 Twin Circle Publishing Co. , New York, pp. 198-200, 240
- ^ Lazo, Mario, American Policy Failures in Cuba--Dagger in the Heart! 1970, Twin Circle Publishing Co. , New York, pp. 198-200, 240
- ^ Faria, Miguel A. Cuba in Revolution--Escape from a Lost Paradise, 2002, Hacienda Publishing, Macon, Georgia, pp. 105,182,248
- ^ Faria, Miguel A. Cuba in Revolution -- Escape From a Lost Paradise, 2002, Hacienda Publishing, Inc. , Macon, Georgia, pp. 163-228
- ^ Cuba: Order and Revolution, Jorge I. Domínguez
- ^ U.S. Arrests Cuban Exile Accused in Deadly '76 Airline Bombing. New York Times (2005-05-18). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. Retrieved on 2008-01-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain
- ^ The Daily News -- April 1980. The Eighties Club - The Politics and Pop Culture of the 1980s (April 1980). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ The Daily News -- June 1980. The Eighties Club - The Politics and Pop Culture of the 1980s (June 1980). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Miguel A. Faria Jr. , M. D. (November 2, 2002), Cuba (Part I): The Silent War Against the Environment, haciendapub. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. com (Reprinted from NewsMax. com), <http://www.haciendapub.com/castro3.html>. Retrieved on 1 January 2008
- ^ Miguel A. Faria Jr. , M. D. (November 10, 2002), Cuba (Part II): The Hunter and the Hunted in the Lost Caribbean Paradise, haciendapub. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw See also 2002 (disambiguation Year 2002 ( MMII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday of the Gregorian calendar. com (Reprinted from NewsMax. com), <http://www.haciendapub.com/castro4.html>. Retrieved on 1 January 2008
- ^ Castro not dying, US envoys told. BBC News, 18 December 2006. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Castro does not have cancer, says Spanish doctor. Times Online. Retrieved on 2006-12-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht.
- ^ [1]
- ^ Cuban TV shows 'stronger' BBC News. Castro
- ^ Ailing Castro says 'I feel good' BBC News.
- ^ Castro 'to be fit to hold power' BBC News.
- ^ Llaman los CDR al movimiento Mi aporte por la Patria, granma. com, August 16, 2007, <http://www.granma.cubaweb.cu/2007/08/16/nacional/artic13.html>. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 8 January 2008
- ^ "Castro resigns as Cuban president: official media", AFP, 2008-02-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum Retrieved on 2008-02-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum
- ^ "Raul Castro named Cuban president", BBC, 2008-02-24. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the Retrieved on 2008-02-24. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the "Raul, 76, has in effect been president since and the National Assembly vote was seen as formalising his position. "
- ^ "Byte by byte", The Economist, 2008-03-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I.
- ^ Arquitectura y Urbanismo en la República de Cuba (1902-1958)…Antecedentes, Evolución y Estructuras de Apoyo. Retrieved on 2006-03-24. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1401 - Mongol emperor Timur sacks Damascus. 1603 - James VI of Scotland
- ^ a b Constitution of the Republic of Cuba, 1992. Cubanet.
- ^ a b c Inter-American commission on Human Rights
- ^ The Cuban Samizdat: Can It Be Stopped?
- ^ Cuba's upcoming elections are neither free nor fair, Cubanet CUBA NEWS, quoting People in Need (a Czech human right organization), October 11, 2007, <http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y07/oct07/18e7.htm>. Events 1138 - A massive earthquake struck Aleppo, Syria. 1531 - Huldrych Zwingli is killed Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 8 January 2008
". . . that presently structured elections in Cuba are neither open nor fair. These opponents make the following points (slightly paraphrased): “During the Parliamentary elections, Cubans: (1) have almost no real choice in who can be considered a candidate since they have no right to propose independent candidates on a national level; (2) the number of candidates is equal to the number of people who are to be elected; (3) candidates are chosen by six specific organizations under the direct control of the communist party; (4) those not affiliated with one of these six organizations have no means of participating in the selection process; (4) voters can be over-represented by serving on one or several of the organizations; (5) voters can only select the approved candidates for the ballots to be considered valid; (6) ballots with no candidate selected or with write-in or other suggestions are invalid. ”" - ^ ""Es improbable que se celebre mientras Fidel no esté condiciones de estar en la reunión físicamente, aunque no haya retornado al gobierno", dijo un académico cubano que prefirió no revelar su nombre. " [2]
- ^ Jime Lobe
- ^ AP 1950 Invasion Wiped Out Says Trujillo Waterloo Daily Courier Wednesday, June 24, 1959 Waterloo, Iowa, page 7 “The government announcement said Capt. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Enrique Jimenez Moya, described by' the exiles as the expedition leader, was killed as he tried to escape, it identified six other bodies among the rebel dead, but did not list the total casualties or the size of the invasion force (other sources give the figure at about 89). ”
- ^ Hernández, Félix José (accessed 10-22-07) Fidel Castro: la Infancia de un Jefe, Consejo Militar Cubano Americano. [3]
“Franqui narra como después de la muerte de Camilo, su tropa fue enviada a “liberar” a la República Dominicana, osea, a una muerte segura. Sus oficiales de la Sierra pasaron a ocupar puestos de segunda categoría. ¡El único que se salvó en aquel memento fue . . . Arnaldo Ochoa!” - ^ AP 1987 Cubans in Nicaragua said to be prepared to fight if invaded The News, Frederick, Md. , Monday, December 28, 1987 Washington p. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) A-8 (AP)
- ^ AP 1983 Searchers may have found Bishop's body Wednesday, November 09, 1983 Doylestown, Pennsylvania page 22 “CALIVIGNY, Grenada (AP)
- ^ Huchthausen, Peter 2003 America's Splendid Little Wars: A Short History of U. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1983 ( MCMLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays the 1983 Gregorian calendar) S. Military Engagements: 1975-2000, Viking (Penguin Group) New York ISBN-10 0670032328 ISBN-13 978-0670032327 pp. 64-85 p. 75
- ^ de la Cova, Antonio R. 1997 U. S. -Cuba Relations during the Reagan Administration Chapter 20. President Reagan and The World Edited by Eric J. Schmertz, Natalie Datlof, and Alexej Ugrinsky Hofstra University Contributions in Political Science, Number 376 381-301 Greenwood Press Westport, Connecticut • London [4] - http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=58988026
- ^ Ramazani, Rouhollah K. 1975 The Persian Gulf and the Strait of Hormuz, Vol. 3. Sijthoff & Noordhoof, Holland ISBN 9028600698 mentions Cuban intervention in several different sections e. g. p. 75 “Just as the Soviet Union has sought the destruction of the Omani regime by proxy of South Yemini and Cuban support for the insurgents, the United States…” p. 115 “The Soviet Union indirectly intervened in the civil war in Oman by aiding the Dhofari rebels through Cuban and South Yemen. ”
- ^ TITLE 22 > CHAPTER 69A > § 6021 U.S. Code Collection Cornell Law School, Ithaca N.Y,. Retrieved on 2007-03-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 161 - Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius dies and is succeeded by co-Emperors Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus
- ^ http://www.gpoaccess.gov/usbudget/fy08/sheets/28_29.xls
- ^ Information about human rights in Cuba (español). Comision Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (April 7 1967). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Castro sued over alleged torture. News from Russia (November 16 2005). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ CUBA. Amnesty International Online Documentation Library. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Cuba. Reporters Without Borders (receives Funds of the Center for a Free Cuba). Retrieved on 2007-01-27. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 98 - Trajan becomes Roman Emperor after the death of Nerva.
- ^ a b “V. GENERAL PRISON CONDITIONS”, CUBA'S REPRESSIVE MACHINERY: Human Rights Forty Years After the Revolution, Human Rights Watch, <http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/cuba/Cuba996-05.htm>. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ Cuba urged to end crackdown, BBC News, March 22, 2003, <http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/2871379.stm>. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ Theresa Bond (2003), “The Crackdown in Cuba”, Foreign Affairs (Council on Foreign Affairs), <http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030901faessay82509-p20/theresa-bond/the-crackdown-in-cuba.html>. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ Daniel Flynn (March 18, 2005), Cuban Prisons Cruel and Inhumane, Amnesty Says, netforcuba. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. org, <http://www.netforcuba.org/News-EN/2005/Mar/News540.htm>. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ Cuban dissidents denounce break-up of protest, Cubanet, October 5, 2007, <http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y07/oct07/05e3.htm>. Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 19 December 2007
- ^ CUBA. Amnesty International Online Documentation Library. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ e. g. “Another Four Year Anniversary”, Cuba - Human Rights, beautifulhorizons. net, <http://www.beautifulhorizons.net/weblog/cuba_human_rights/index.html>. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ THE HOMELAND BELONGS TO US ALL, cubanet. org, quoting Cuban Dissidence Task Group, June 27, 1997, <http://www.cubanet.org/CNews/y97/jul97/homdoc.htm>. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ Current prisoners of conscience must be released, Amnesty international, September 1, 1999, <http://web.archive.org/web/20060302105222/http://web.amnesty.org/library/Index/ENGAMR250361999?open&of=ENG-CUB>. Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 1999 ( MCMXCIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1999 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 19 December 2007 (from internet archive)
- ^ Rule of law and cuba, Florida State University, <http://www.ruleoflawandcuba.fsu.edu/individual.cfm?id=52>. Retrieved on 18 November 2007
- ^ Cuba: Normando Hernández González, PEN American center, <http://www.pen.org/viewmedia.php/prmMID/912>. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ José Luis García Paneque, Reporters sans frontières, <http://www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=6848>. Retrieved on 18 December 2007
- ^ Fighting for Democracy. Freedom for Garcia Paneque. Address to Raul Castro, Critica Sociale, <http://www.criticasociale.net/index.php?&function=libreria_page&cid=44&id=0000261>. Retrieved on 19 December 2007
- ^ Luis Enrique Ferrer and José Daniel Ferrer García, Human Rights First, <http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/defenders/hrd_cuba/hrd_cuba_garcia.htm>. Retrieved on 19 December 2007
- ^ CUBA. Amnesty International Online Documentation Library. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Blue, Sarah A. 2007 The Erosion of Racial Equality in the Context of Cuba's Dual Economy. Latin American Politics and Society 49(3)35-68 ISSN: 1531426X
- ^ Librarians or dissidents? Critics and supporters of The Independent Libraries in Cuba (Progressive Librarian #93)
- ^ BBC NEWS | Programmes | From Our Own Correspondent | Packing up home 'easy' in needy Cuba
- ^ Cuban officials say Castro not dying | U.S. | Reuters
- ^ a b Is Cuba Democratic?. Cuba-solidarity. org. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Cubaverdad. net. Workers Paradise. Trade Unions. Violations of Social and Labor. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ Fontaine, Roger (June 4, 1988), Cuba's Terrorist Connection, the Heritaga Foundation, <http://www.heritage.org/Research/LatinAmerica/bg655.cfm?renderforprint=1>. Events 781 BC - The first historic Solar eclipse is recorded in China. Year 1988 ( MCMLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link displays 1988 Gregorian calendar) Retrieved on 8 January 2008
“. . . Third, the U. S. should consider ending its low-level diplomatic ties with Cuba. Cuban history is replete with examples of terrorism, most notably in the early 1930s when groups of young Cubans struggled against General Gerardo Machado, who ran Cuba with an iron hand for nearly a decade beginning in 1925. Calling themselves the *ABC it is unclear what the initials stood for (This stood for the level of its cell structure A being the highest level B, the next etc El Jigue)), these young Cubans invented many of the techniques of modern urban terrorism (coordinated bombing, for example which Cuban advisers have passed on in scores of training camps around the world to thousands of Argentinians Brazilians, Chileans, Colombians, Ecuadorans, Hondurans, Nicaraguans, Salvadorans, and Uruguayans, to name a few in Latin America, and to Basques, Namibians, Palestinians West Germans, and Yemenis. ” - ^ (British Foreign Office. Chancery American Department, Foreign Office, London September 2, 1959 (2181/59) to British Embassy Havana classified as restricted Released 2000 by among British Foreign Office papers FOREIGN OFFICES FILES FOR CUBA Part 1: Revolution in Cuba “in our letter 1011/59 May 6 we mentioned that a Russian workers' delegation had been invited to participate in the May Day celebrations here, but had been delayed. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. The year 1959 ( MCMLIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. The interpreter with the party, which arrived later and stayed in Cuba a few days, was called Vadim Kotchergin although he was at the time using what he subsequently claimed was his mother's name of Liston (?). He remained in the background, and did not attract any attention. . ”
- ^ El campo de entrenamiento "Punto Cero" donde el Partido Comunista de Cuba (PCC) adiestra a terroristas nacionales e internacionales, Cuban American Foundation, <http://www.canf.org/2005/1es/noticias-de-Cuba/2005-nov-07-el-campo-de-entrenamiento.htm>. Retrieved on 8 January 2008 (English title: The training camp "Point Zero" where the Communist Party of Cuba (PCC) trained national and international terrorists)
“. . . Los coroneles soviéticos de la KGB Vadim Kochergin y Victor Simonov (ascendido a general en 1970) fueron entrenadores en "Punto Cero" desde finales de los años 60 del siglo pasado. Uno de los" graduados" por Simonov en este campo de entrenamiento es Ilich Ramírez Sánchez, más conocido como "Carlos El Chacal". Otro "alumno" de esta instalación del terror es el mexicano Rafael Sebastián Guillén, alias "subcomandante Marcos", quien se "graduó" en "Punto Cero" a principio de los años 80. ” - ^ Levitin, Michael (November 4, 2007), La Stasi entrenó a la Seguridad cubana, Nuevo Herald, <http://www.elnuevoherald.com/209/story/112259.html>
- ^ Cuba Climate data
- ^ a b http://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/1997/9509097.pdf The Mineral Resources of Cuba 1997
- ^ Cuban Oil, Gas Output Grow - Prensa Latina - Cuba Business News - Havana Journal
- ^ theTrumpet.com
- ^ Wayne S Smith: After 46 years of failure, we must change course on Cuba | Comment is free | The Guardian
- ^ a b Zenith and Eclipse: A Comparative Look at Socio-Economic Conditions in Pre-Castro and Present Day Cuba
- ^ Cuba Facts | Directorio Democrático Cubano
- ^ Renaissance and decay: A comparison of socioeconomic indicators. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. University of Texas. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ The Cuban Education System: Lessons and Dilemmas. Human Development Network Education. World Bank.
- ^ Students graduate from Cuban school - Americas - MSNBC.com
- ^ BBC NEWS | Americas | Cuba-trained US doctors graduate
- ^ Resolución 120 del 2007 del Ministro del MIC la cual está vigente desde el ·0 de Septiembre de 2007
- ^ Vigilancia y Orden Público, cubaverdad. net, <http://www.cubaverdad.net/cdr.htm>. Retrieved on 8 January 2008
- ^ Cuba: A Different America, By Wilber A. Chaffee, Rowland and Littlefield, 1992, p. 116
- ^ Community Health Nursing: Caring for the Public's Health By Karen Saucier Lundy, Jones and Bartlett, 2005. p. 377
- ^ Culture and Customs of Cuba, by William Luis, Greenwood Publishing Group (2001) p. 42
- ^ Rethinking Health Promotion: A Global Approach by Theodore H. MacDonald, Routledge (1998), p. 44
- ^ Beyond the White House: Waging Peace, by Jimmy Carter, Simon and Schuster (2007) p. 83
- ^ Havana: Two Faces of the Antillean Metropolis, by Joseph L. Scarpaci, Roberto Segre, Mario, UNC Press (2002), p. 261
- ^ www. unicef. org/publications/files/The_State_of_the_Worlds_Children_2008. pdf
- ^ 134th session of the executive committee, Provisional Agenda Item 4.3 CE134/11 (Eng.), Washington, D. C. U. S. A: Pan American Health Organization, Observatory of Human resources in Health,, May 18, 2004, <http://www.paho.org/english/gov/ce/ce134-11-e.pdf>. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Retrieved on 8 January 2008
page 5, item 10: “Gaps in data collection and limitations of data sources undermine efforts to address these issues. Data are generally collected from existing sources, such as personnel registries of ministries of health and social security institutions…” - ^ John Dorschner 2007 Nation's fabled healthcare may not be so healthy Miami Herald, January 28, 2007 p. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. 1E. and more recently Katherine Hirschfeld (2007). Re-examining the Cuban Health Care System: Towards a Qualitative Critique. Retrieved on 2007-07-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of
- ^ CIA World Factbook (Cuba), last updated 19/7/2007 and (USA) last updated 19/7/2007
- ^ Scarborough, Rowan 2007 Sabotage: America's Enemies Within the CIA, Regnery Publishing, Inc. ISBN-10 1596985100 ISBN-13 978-1596985100
- ^ "Health in Cuba", by Richard S. Cooper, Joan F. Kennelly, and Pedro Ordunez-Garcia, International Journal of Epidemiology, Oxford University Press, 2006;35:817-824
- ^ Cuban Communism, 1959-1995, by Louis Horowitz, Transaction Publishers, 1995, p. 484.
- ^ Cuba, by Brendan Sainsbury, Lonely Planet, 2006, p. 482
- ^ Moon Cuba, by Christopher P. Baker, Avalon Travel Publishing (2006) p. 636
- ^ Moving Mountains: The Race to Treat Global AIDS, by Anne-Christine D'Adesky, Verso (2006) p. 70
- ^ Cuba, by Sarah Cameron, Footprint Publishers (2002) p. 399
- ^ Managing Labor Migration in the Twenty-First Century, by Philip L. Martin, Manolo I. Abella, Christiane Kuptsch, Yale University Press (2005) p. 71
- ^ Back from the Future: Cuba under Castro, by Susan Eckstein, Routledge (2003) p. 176
- ^ The Cuban Intervention in Angola, 1965-1991, by Edward George, Routledge (2005) p. 159
- ^ World Development Report: Making Services Work for Poor People, by Shantayanan Devarajan, Ritva Reinikka, World Bank. World Bank Publications (2003) p. 157-58
- ^ Cuban doctors defect from Venezuela posts / Castro's program to aid Chavez opens way for 'desertions'
- ^ Cuban Doctors Awaiting U.S. Response - washingtonpost.com
- ^ Cuban Doctors Seek Path to U.S. : NPR
- ^ Cuban doctors defect from Venezuela posts / Castro's program to aid Chavez opens way for 'desertions'
- ^ Id.
- ^ Government of Cuba (2002). Cuban Census. Retrieved on 2007-01-29. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 904 - Sergius III comes out of retirement to take over the papacy from the deposed Antipope Christopher.
- ^ DePalma, Anthony (July 5 1998). Cuban Site Casts Light on an Extinct People. New York Times. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ TABLA II.3 POBLACION POR COLOR DE LA PIEL Y GRUPOS DE EDADES, SEGUN ZONA DE RESIDENCIA Y SEXO
- ^ Etat des propriétés rurales appartenant à des Français dans l'île de Cuba from http://www.cubagenweb.org
- ^ Castro's Cuba in Perspective
- ^ Sahrawi children inhumanely treated in Cuba, former Cuban official. MoroccoTimes. com (March 31 2006). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ thepeninsulaqatar.com
- ^ [5]
- ^ United Nations World Fertility Patterns 1997. un. org (1997). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Stanley K. Henshaw, Susheela Singh and Taylor Haas. The Incidence of Abortion Worldwide. International Family Planning Perspectives, 1999, 25(Supplement):S30 – S38. Retrieved on May 11, 2006. Events 330 - Byzantium is renamed ''Nova Roma'' during a dedication ceremony but is more popularly referred to as Constantinople Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. This publication notes, however, that: The relatively high rate in Cuba (78 per 1,000 [women, per year]) includes menstrual regulation, an early abortion procedure carried out without pregnancy testing, as well as termination of known pregnancies. In 1996, 60% of the procedures were menstrual regulations.
- ^ Asís, Moisés 2000 Judaism In Cuba 1959 – 1999 ICCAS Occasional Paper Series December 2000 http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/cuban-jews.htm “However, it was a paradox that Jews, who historically have been involved in social reforms and revolutions because it is a part of Judaism to look forward to a world of justice and peace, took a different approach: 94 percent of the 15,000 Cuban Jews left the country in the first years of the Revolution and went to the United States, Israel, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica, and other countries. The history of the Jewish community of Cuba during the past 40 years is the history of the remaining 6 percent of a successful and proud community; it is the history of those who stayed and their children”
- ^ Pedraza, Silvia 2007 Political Disaffection in Cuba's Revolution and Exodus (Cambridge Studies in Contentious Politics)) Cambridge University Press ISBN-10 0521687292, ISBN-13 978-0521687294 p. 2 and many other sections of this book
- ^ Quiñones, Rolando García Quiñones. International Migrations in Cuba: persinting trends and changes. Technical Corporation. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Cuba. Encyclopedia Encarta.
- ^ Bill Clinton 1993-2001. history. acusd. edu. Retrieved on 2006-02-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 474 - Zeno crowned as co-emperor of the Byzantine Empire.
- ^ a b Rush of Cuban migrants use Mexican routes to U.S.
- ^ Cuban Natives or Citizens Seeking Lawful Permanent Resident Status. U. S. Citizenship and Immigration Services (1996). Retrieved on 2006-05-06. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance.
- ^ Human Rights Overview: Cub. hrw. org. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ http://www.haciendapub.com/castro20.html
- ^ Faria, Miguel A. Cuba in Revolution—Escape From a Lost Paradise, 2002, Hacienda Publishing, Inc. , Macon, Georgia, pp. 415-416.
- ^ a b Catholic church in Cuba strives to reestablish the faith National Catholic Observer
- ^ Official Web site of Conferencia de Obispos Catolicos de Cuba. Conferencia De Obispos Catolicos de Cuba (April 12 2008).
- ^ Government officials visit Baha'i center. Baha'iWorldNewsService. com (June 13 2005).
- ^ Islam in Cuba
- ^ Granma 2007 Cuba will not be going to the World Boxing Championships. Digital Granma International Havana. August 30, 2007 http://www.granma.cu/ingles/2007/agosto/juev30/36boxeo.html
- ^ a b Baker, Geoffrey. Events 1363 - Beginning date of the Battle of Lake Poyang; the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders— Chen Youliang and Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. 2008. "The Politics of Dancing. " In Reading Reggaeton (forthcoming, Duke University Press).
- ^ Cuban hip hop, rap music, reggaeton, reggae & electro acoustic, Alamar festival, LAS KRUDAS, ORISHAS, DOBLE FILO, CUBANITO 102, Obsesión, OGGERE, EDDY- K, EXPLOSIóN SUPREMA, ANóNIMO CONSEJO, FREE HOLE NEGRO, BABY LORES AND INSURRECTO, LOS ALDEANOS, GENTE DE ZONA
- ^ Dancing Reggaeton - Perreo - Dancing Perreo
- ^ José, Alvarez 2000 "Rationed Products and Something Else: Food Availability and Distribution in 2001" Cuba in Transition 11 pp. 305-322 http://lanic.utexas.edu/project/asce/pdfs/volume11/alvarez.pdf “To blame the U. S. economic sanctions for the existence of a rationing system of basic food products is not a very intelligent argument to justify Cuba's socialist system. It is an admission that Cubans cannot even produce what grows very easily on Cuban soil. If one lists the food products that have been rationed since 1962, it becomes evident that almost all of them were in abundance before the 1959 revolution. Granted, all Cubans were not able to consume a wide variety of products because the instrument for rationing was the price system. But even after the rationing system was established, there have been periods in which the abundance of several products demonstrated the feasibility of returning to a stable and ample supply of food products. I remember the proliferation of a chain of government stores called FrutiCuba devoted exclusively to the selling of numerous fruits and vegetables in the mid-1960s. The existence of the free farmers’ markets in the 1980s, the free agricultural markets after 1994, and the new food outlets described below testify to the ability of Cuban farmers, now including urban inexperienced farmers, to produce abundant food supplies despite the U. S. economic sanctions, that could do away with the food rationing system. It is interesting to recall that, when the Soviet bloc was subsidizing the Cuban economy to the tune of five billion dollars per year, food was still rationed in Cuba. ”
- ^ Social Policy (PDF). oxfamamerica. org. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ http://ctp.iccas.miami.edu/Research_Studies/BLatell.pdf
- ^ Cuba'S Repressive Machinery
- ^ Social Policy (PDF). oxfamamerica. org. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Nicolás Crespo and Santos Negrón Díaz, "Cuban tourism in 2007: economic impact", (University of Texas, accessed on 2006-07-09)
- ^ a b Background Note: Cuba. U. S. Department of State (December 2005). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ http://www.uiowa.edu/ifdebook/conferences/cuba/TLCP/Volume%201/Facio.pdf Tourism in Cuba during the Special Period
- ^ Fidel Castro, Fine Rum and Cuban Cigars
- ^ Socialized Medicine in Cuba 2002 (Part I): A Poor State of Health!
- ^ Socialized Medicine in Cuba 2002 (Part II): Other Hidden Faces of Cuban Medicine
- ^ La Nueva Cuba
- ^ Cuba Facts
- ^ Welcome to the Cuba Transition Project at the University of Miami
- ^ Cuba's Foreign Debt
- ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Cuba
- ^ Focus on Cuba
- ^ Schweimler, Daniel (May 4th 2001). Cuba's anti-corruption ministry. BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Rank Order Exports. CIA:The World Fact Book (June 29 2006). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Cuba. CIA World Fact Book (June 29 2006). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Cuba Exports - commodities. IndexMundi. vom (January 1 2005). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Calzon, Frank (March 13 2005). Cuba makes poor trade partner for Louisiana. ShreveportTimes. com. Retrieved on 2005-12-21. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 69 - The end of the Year of the four emperors: Following Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian
- ^ Rank Order - GDP (purchasing power parity). CIA Fact Book (June 29 2006). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Cuba. heritage. org (2004). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Cuba's Sugar Industry and the Impact of Hurricane Michele. International Agricultural Trade Report (December 6 2001). Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Global Nickel Mine Production 2002 (2002). Retrieved on 2006-08-23. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire
- ^ Frank, Marc (December 18 2002). Cuba's 2002 nickel exports top 70,000 tonnes. Center for International Policy. Retrieved on 2006-07-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire.
- ^ Smith-Spark, Laura (2006). Cuba oil prospects cloud US horizon. BBC. Retrieved on 2006-12-09. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 536 - Byzantine General Belisarius enters Rome while the Ostrogothic garrison peacefully leaves the city
- ^ Cuban army called key in any post-Castro scenario Anthony Boadle Reuters 2006
External links
- Granma — International edition of Communist Party of Cuba Newspaper
- Cuba Web Directory — Links directory on Cuba.
- Government of Cuba
- Cuban News Agency
Wikimedia Atlas of Cuba- Cuba travel guide from Wikitravel
- Wikia has a wiki on this subject: Cuba
- Cuba at the Open Directory Project
- Cuba entry at The World Factbook
- Cuba Web Photos — Discover Cuba on Photos. Wikitravel is a Web -based project "to create a free, complete up-to-date and reliable worldwide travel guide. Wikia (originally Wikicities) is a selective Free web hosting service for Wikis (or Wiki farm) operated by Wikia Inc The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory
- The Cuban Rafter Phenomenon: A Unique Sea Exodus — University of Miami site
Dictionary
Cuba
-proper noun
- A country and the largest island in the Caribbean. Official name: Republic of Cuba.
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