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In the philosophy of perception, critical realism is the theory that some of our sense-data (for example, those of primary qualities) can and do accurately represent external objects, properties, and events, while other of our sense-data (for example, those of secondary qualities and perceptual illusions) do not accurately represent any external objects, properties, and events. The philosophy of perception concerns how mental processes and Symbols depend on the world internal and external to the perceiver The concept of sense data (singular sense datum) is very influential and widely used in the Philosophy of perception. In short, critical realism refers to any position that maintains that there exists an objectively knowable, mind-independent reality, whilst acknowledging the roles of perception and cognition.

Critical realism refers to several schools of thought. These include the American critical realists (Roy Wood Sellars, George Santayana, and Arthur Lovejoy) and a broader movement including Bertrand Russell and C. D. Broad. Roy Wood Sellars (1880– September 5, 1973) was an American philosopher of Critical realism and Religious humanism, and a proponent of George Santayana ( December 16, 1863, Madrid &ndash September 26, 1952, Rome) was a Philosopher, Essayist Arthur Oncken Lovejoy ( October 10, 1873, Berlin &ndash December 30, 1962, Baltimore) was an influential American Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian C D Broad (full name Charlie Dunbar Broad 30 December, 1887 - 11 March, 1971) was an English epistemologist, The Canadian Jesuit Bernard Lonergan developed a comprehensive critical realist philosophy and this understanding of critical realism dominates North America's Catholic Universities. Fr Bernard Lonergan SJ ( 17 December 1904 &ndash 26 November 1984) was a Canadian Jesuit Priest Whereas in the UK, critical realism refers to a philosophical approach to the social and natural world - Roy Bhaskar's work is particularly well associated with this approach. Bhaskar (born May 15, 1944) is a British Philosopher, best known as a significant proponent of the philosophical movement The name is used by a number in the science-religion interface community.

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Locke and Descartes

According to Locke and Descartes, some sense-data, namely the sense-data of secondary qualities, do not represent anything in the external world, even if they are caused by external qualities (primary qualities). John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Thus it is natural to adopt a theory of critical realism.

By its talk of sense-data and representation, this theory depends on or presupposes the truth of representationalism. Representative Theory of Perception, also known as Indirect realism, epistemological dualism, and The veil of perception, is a philosophical If critical realism is correct, then representationalism would have to be a correct theory of perception.

American critical realism

The American critical realist movement was a response both to direct realism (especially in its recent incarnation as new realism), as well as to idealism and pragmatism. Direct realism, also known as Naive realism or common sense realism is a theory of Perception that claims that the Senses provide us with direct Awareness New realism was a Philosophy expounded in the early 20th century by a group of six US based scholars namely Edwin Bissell Holt ( Harvard University In Western civilization, Idealism is the philosophy which maintains that the Ultimate nature of reality is ideal or based upon ideas values essences The so-called Pragmatism generally considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce, who first stated the Pragmatic maxim. In very broad terms, American critical realism was a form of representative realism, in which there are objects that stand as mediators between independent real objects and perceivers. Representative Theory of Perception, also known as Indirect realism, epistemological dualism, and The veil of perception, is a philosophical

One innovation was that these mediators aren't ideas (British empiricism), but properties, essences, or "character complexes. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. "

British realism

Similar developments occurred in Britain. Major figures included Samuel Alexander, John Cook Wilson, H. A. Prichard, H. H. Price, and C. D. Broad. Samuel Alexander OM ( 6 January 1859 - 13 September 1938) was an Australian born British Philosopher John Cook Wilson (born Nottingham 6 June 1849, died 1915 was an English Philosopher. Harold Arthur Prichard (1871-1947 often H A Prichard, was an English intuitionist moral Philosopher and epistemologist who taught Henry Habberley Price ( May 17, 1899 – November 26, 1984) was a British philosopher known for his work on Perception. C D Broad (full name Charlie Dunbar Broad 30 December, 1887 - 11 March, 1971) was an English epistemologist,

Contemporary critical realism

General philosophy

Critical realism is presently most commonly associated with the work of Roy Bhaskar. Bhaskar (born May 15, 1944) is a British Philosopher, best known as a significant proponent of the philosophical movement Bhaskar developed a general philosophy of science that he described as transcendental realism, and a special philosophy of the human sciences that he called critical naturalism. Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. The two terms were elided by other authors to form the umbrella term critical realism.

Transcendental realism attempts to establish that in order for scientific investigation to take place, the object of that investigation must have real, manipulable, internal mechanisms that can be actualised to produce particular outcomes. This is what we do when we conduct experiments. This stands in contrast to empiricist scientists' claim that all scientists can do is observe the relationship between cause and effect. Causality (but not causation) denotes a necessary relationship between one event (called cause and another event (called effect) which is the direct consequence Whilst empiricism, and positivism more generally, locate causal relationships at the level of events, Critical Realism locates them at the level of the generative mechanism, arguing that causal relationships are irreducible to empirical constant conjunctions of David Hume's doctrine; in other words, a constant conjunctive relationship between events is neither sufficient nor even necessary to establish a causal relationship. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy

The implication of this is that science should be understood as an ongoing process in which scientists improve the concepts they use to understand the mechanisms that they study. It should not, in contrast to the claim of empiricists, be about the identification of a coincidence between a postulated independent variable and dependent variable. Positivism/falsification are also rejected due to the observation that it is highly plausible that a mechanism will exist but either a) go unactivated, b) be activated, but not perceived, or c) be activated, but counteracted by other mechanisms, which results in it having unpredictable effects. Positivism is the Philosophy that the only authentic knowledge is knowledge that is based on actual sense experience Thus, non-realisation of a posited mechanism can not (in contrast to the claim of positivists) be taken to signify its non-existence.

Critical naturalism argues that the transcendental realist model of science is equally applicable to both the physical and the human worlds. However, when we study the human world we are studying something fundamentally different from the physical world and must therefore adapt our strategy to studying it. Critical naturalism therefore prescribes social scientific method which seeks to identify the mechanisms producing social events, but with a recognition that these are in a much greater state of flux than they are in the physical world (as human structures change much more readily than those of, say, a leaf). In particular, we must understand that human agency is made possible by social structures that themselves require the reproduction of certain actions/pre-conditions. Further, the individuals that inhabit these social structures are capable of consciously reflecting upon, and changing, the actions that produce them—a practice that is in part facilitated by social scientific research.

Developments

Since Bhaskar made the first big steps in popularising the theory of critical realism in the 1970s, it has become one of the major strands of social scientific method - rivalling positivism/empiricism, and post-structuralism/relativism/interpretivism.

An edited volume, Critical Realism: Essential Readings, is currently the most appreciated and available reader in critical realism.

There is also a Journal of Critical Realism, which publishes articles on the theory and results of the practice of critical realist social science. See also, Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, published by Blackwell, which also publishes theoretical and empirical realist social science.

A lively email discussion on critical realism can be joined on the critical realism e-mail list.

Since his development of critical realism, Bhaskar has gone on to develop a philosophical system he calls dialectical critical realism, which is most clearly outlined in his weighty book, Dialectic: the pulse of freedom.

Bhaskar is frequently criticised for the density and obscurity of his writing. That said, some readers may actually appreciate his meticulous linguistic precision, which can be time consuming to read, but read properly, it is possible to understand the precise and unambiguous meaning behind his writing. An accessible introduction was written by Andrew Collier. Andrew Sayer has written accessible texts on critical realism in social science. Danemark et al have also produced a readingly accessible account.

David Graeber relies on critical realism, which he understands as a form of 'heraclitean' philosophy, emphasizing flux and change over stable essences, in his anthropological book on the concept of value, Toward an anthropological theory of value: the false coin of our own dreams. David Rolfe Graeber (born 12 February 1961 is an American Anthropologist and Anarchist.

Theological critical realism

Critical realism is employed by a community of scientists turned theologians. They are influenced by the scientist turned philosopher Michael Polanyi. Michael Polanyi (born Polányi Mihály) ( March 11, 1891, Budapest – February 22, 1976) was a Hungarian – Polanyi's ideas were taken up enthusiastically by T. F. Torrance whose work in this area has influenced many theologians calling themselves critical realists. Thomas Forsyth Torrance ( 30 August 1913 &ndash 2 December 2007) was a 20th century Protestant Christian Theologian This community includes John Polkinghorne, Ian Barbour, and Arthur Peacocke. John Polkinghorne, Ian Graeme Barbour (b 1923 Beijing, China) is an American scholar on the relationship between science and religion The Reverend Canon Arthur Robert Peacocke MBE ( 29 November 1924 - 21 October 2006) was a British theologian and scientist The aim of the group is to show that the language of science and Christian theology are similar, forming a starting point for a dialogue between the two. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument Alister McGrath and Wentzel van Huyssteen (the latter of Princeton Theological Seminary) are recent contributors to this strand. Alister E McGrath (born January 23, 1953) is a Christian theologian, with a DPhil in Molecular biophysics, noted for his work on N.T. Wright, New Testament scholar and Anglican Bishop of Durham also writes on this topic:

. Nicholas Thomas "Tom" Wright (born 1 December 1948) is the Bishop of Durham in the Church of England and a leading New Testament Anglicanism is a tradition of Christian faith Churches in this tradition either have historical connections to the Church of England or have similar beliefs See also List of Bishops of Durham The Bishop of Durham is the Anglican Bishop responsible for the Diocese of Durham in . . I propose a form of critical realism. This is a way of describing the process of "knowing" that acknowledges the reality of the thing known, as something other than the knower (hence "realism"), while fully acknowledging that the only access we have to this reality lies along the spiralling path of appropriate dialogue or conversation between the knower and the thing known (hence "critical"). (The New Testament and the People of God, pp. 35)

N. T. Wright's fellow biblical scholar--James Dunn--encountered the thought of Bernard Lonergan as mediated through Ben Meyer. James Dunn, Jim Dunn or Jimmy Dunn may refer to James Dunn: James Dunn (actor, an actor who performed in Bad Girl Fr Bernard Lonergan SJ ( 17 December 1904 &ndash 26 November 1984) was a Canadian Jesuit Priest Much of North American critical realism--later used in the service of theology--has its source in the thought of Lonergan.

Critical realism in economics

Heterodox economists like Tony Lawson, Frederic Lee or Geoffrey Hodgson are trying to work the ideas of critical realism into economics, especially the dynamic idea of macro-micro interaction. Geoffrey M Hodgson (born 28 July 1946 is a Research Professor of Business Studies in the University of Hertfordshire, and also the head of the Centre for Research in Institutional

According to critical realist economists, the central aim of economic theory is to provide explanations in terms of hidden generative structures. This position combines transcendental realism with a critique of mainstream economics. Transcendental realism is a concept stemming from the philosophy of Immanuel Kant that implies individuals have a perfect understanding of the limitations of their own minds Mainstream economics is a loose term used to refer to the non- heterodox economics taught in prominent universities It argues that mainstream economics (i) relies excessively on deductivist methodology, (ii) embraces an uncritical enthusiasm for formalism, and (iii) believes in strong conditional predictions in economics despite repeated failures.

The world that mainstream economists study is the empirical world. But this world is "out of phase" (Lawson) with the underlying ontology of economic regularities. In Philosophy, ontology (from the Greek, genitive: of being (part The mainstream view is thus a limited reality because empirical realists presume that the objects of inquiry are solely "empirical regularities" - that is, objects and events at the level of the experienced.

The critical realist views the domain of real causal mechanisms as the appropriate object of economic science, whereas the positivist view is that the reality is exhausted in empirical - experienced - reality. Tony Lawson argues that economics ought to embrace a "social ontology" to include the underlying causes of economic phenomena.

References

External links

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