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The Constitution of Malaysia, comprising 181 articles, is the supreme law of Malaysia. For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and The politics of Malaysia takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Malaysia is the Head of government The social contract in Malaysia refers to the agreement made by the country's founding fathers in the Constitution. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the highest ranking office created by the constitution of the federation of Malaysia The Cabinet of Malaysia is the executive branch of Malaysia 's government The Prime Minister of Malaysia (in Malay Perdana Menteri) is the indirectly elected Head of government of Malaysia. Dato' Seri Abdullah Hj Ahmad Badawi (born 26 November 1939 is a Malaysian politician who has served as Prime Minister since 2003 Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia ( Timbalan Perdana Menteri in Malay) is the second highest political post in Malaysia. Dato' Sri Mohd Najib bin Tun Haji Abdul Razak (born July 23, 1953, in Kuala Lipis, Pahang) is a Malaysian politician who The law of Malaysia is mainly based on the Common law legal system The Parliament of Malaysia (Parlimen Malaysia is the national Legislature of Malaysia, based on the Westminster system. The Dewan Negara (literally "National Hall" or Senate is the Upper house of the Parliament of Malaysia. The Dewan Rakyat (literally "Hall of the People" or House of Representatives is the lower house of the Parliament of Malaysia. Malaysia is a Federation of thirteen states but judicial power in the federation is almost exclusively vested in a federal court system. The Opposition in Malaysia is a term used to describe political parties represented in the Parliament of Malaysia that is not in government either on its The Dewan Undangan Negeri (State Legislative Assembly is the legislature of Malaysian states. Elections in Malaysia (and previously Malaya exist at two levels national level and state level The Election Commission of Malaysia ( Malay: Suruhanjaya Pilihan Raya Malaysia (SPR) is a commission set up for the purpose of regulating and conducting Political parties in Malaysia lists political parties in Malaysia. Barisan Nasional ( National Front or BN) is a major political Coalition in Malaysia. Pakatan Rakyat or PR ( People's Pact) was established on April 1, 2008. Malaysia is a Federation which consists of thirteen '''states''' ( Negeri) and three '''federal territories''' ( Wilayah Persekutuan This article concerns the Foreign relations of Malaysia. Malaysia is an active member of various international organisations including the Commonwealth of Nations Information on politics by country is available for every Country, including both De jure and De facto independent Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and Refer here for the full text. It is formally known as the Federal Constitution of Malaysia.

Contents

History

A constitutional conference was held in London from 18th January to 6th February 1956 attended by a delegation from the Federation of Malaya, consisting of four representatives of the Rulers, the Chief Minister of the Federation (Tunku Abdul Rahman) and three other ministers, and also by the British High Commissioner in Malaya and his advisers. The Federation of Malaya (Persekutuan Tanah Melayu was a federation of 11 states formed on January 31 1948 from the nine Malay states and the British Sir Tunku Abdul Rahman Putra Al-Haj ibni Almarhum Sultan Abdul Hamid Halim Shah, CH ( February 8 1903 &ndash December 6

The conference proposed the appointment of an independent commission to devise a constitution for a fully self-governing and independent Federation of Malaya. The Federation of Malaya (Persekutuan Tanah Melayu was a federation of 11 states formed on January 31 1948 from the nine Malay states and the British This proposal was accepted by Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II and the Malay Rulers. For the ship see RMS Queen Elizabeth 2 Elizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary Context States headed by Elizabeth II The Conference of Rulers (also Council of Rulers or Durbar, Malay Majlis Raja-Raja) in Malaysia is a council comprising the nine rulers of the

Accordingly, a commission headed by Lord William Reid, a distinguished Lord of Appeal in ordinary, and consisting of constitutional experts from fellow Commonwealth countries was appointed by the Queen and the Malay Rulers. The commission was appropriately called the Reid Commission.

The Constitution of Malaya was drafted based on the advice of the Reid Commission which conducted a study in 1956. The Reid Commission was an independent commission responsible for drafting the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya prior to Malayan independence from Britain Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Constitution came into force on August 27, 1957. Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan Year 1957 ( MCMLVII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1957 Gregorian calendar) Formal independence was only achieved on August 31, however.

The constitutional machinery devised to bring the new constitution into force consisted of:

The Constitution of Malaya (with significant amendments) was used as the basis for the Constitution of Malaysia when Malaya, Sabah, Sarawak, and Singapore merged to form Malaysia in 1963. Sabah is a Malaysian state located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the Island of Borneo. Singapore For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and

Amendments

The constitution itself provides by Articles 159 and 161E how it may be amended (it may be amended by federal law), and in brief there are four ways by which it may be amended:

1. Some articles may be amended only by a two-thirds majority in each House of Parliament but only if the Conference of Rulers consents. The Parliament of Malaysia (Parlimen Malaysia is the national Legislature of Malaysia, based on the Westminster system. The Conference of Rulers (also Council of Rulers or Durbar, Malay Majlis Raja-Raja) in Malaysia is a council comprising the nine rulers of the These include:

2. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Sabah is a Malaysian state located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the Island of Borneo. The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the Some articles of special interest to East Malaysia, may be amended by a two-thirds majority in each House of Parliament but only if the Governor of the East Malaysian state concurs. These include:

3. Some articles may be amended by a two-thirds majority in each House of Parliament, and these amendments do not require the consent of anybody outside Parliament

4. Some articles, these are not the most important, may be amended by a simple majority in Parliament.

Interpretation

According to constitutional scholar Shad Saleem Faruqi, the Constitution has been amended 42 times over the 48 years since independence as of 2005. Prof Dr Shad Saleem Faruqi is a Malaysian Senior professor of law who has served Universiti Teknologi MARA Shah Alam Selangor in various capacities from 1971 onwards - as Head of the Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. However, as several amendments were made each time, he estimates the true number of individual amendments is around 650. He has stated that "there is no doubt" that "the spirit of the original document has been diluted". [1] This sentiment has been echoed by other legal scholars, who argue that important parts of the original Constitution, such as jus soli (right of birth) citizenship, a limitation on the variation of the number of electors in constituencies, and Parliamentary control of emergency powers have been so modified or altered by amendments that "the present Federal Constitution bears only a superficial resemblance to its original model". Jus soli ( Latin for "right of the soil" or somewhat figuratively "right of the territory" or birthright citizenship, is a Right [2] It has been estimated that between 1957 and 2003, "almost thirty articles have been added and repealed" as a consequence of the frequent amendments. [3]

In July 2007, the Court of Appeal held that the doctrine of separation of powers was an integral part of the Constitution; under the Westminster System Malaysia inherited form the British, separation of powers was originally only loosely provided for. Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance The Westminster system is a democratic Parliamentary system of Government modelled after the British government (the Parliament of the United [4]

Organisation

The Constitution is divided into 14 parts and 13 Schedules. Each part and schedule contain relevant articles. There are 181 articles in the 14 parts, including those which have been repealed.

Parts

Schedules

Notable Articles

Article 5

Article 5 by clause (1) provides that no person may be deprived of his life or personal liberty save in accordance with law. Thus you cannot kill or imprison a man unless authorised by law.

Clause 3 is in two parts. First, it provides that if a person is arrested, he must be informed as soon as possible of the grounds of his arrest. Second, it provides that he must be allowed to consult and be defended by a legal practitioner of his choice.

There is an exception to Clause 3 and that is the Internal Security Act which allows detention without trial at the pleasure of the Prime Minister or the minister-in-charge in the name of national security. The Internal Security Act 1960 ( ISA) (Akta Keselamatan Dalam Negeri is a Preventive detention law in force in Malaysia.

Article 6

Article 6 provides that no person may be held in slavery. All forms of forced labour are prohibited, but federal law may provide for compulsory service for national purposes. It is expressly provided that work incidental to serving a sentence of imprisonment imposed by a court of law is not forced labour.

The National Service Act was drafted based on Article 6.

Article 8

Article 8 by clause (1) provides that all persons are equal before the law and entitled to its equal protection.

Clause 2 states: “Except as expressly authorised by this Constitution, there shall be no discrimination against citizens on the ground only of religion, race, descent, gender or place of birth in any law or in the appointment to any office or employment under a public authority or in the administration of any law relating to the acquisition, holding or disposition of property or the establishing or carrying on of any trade, business, profession, vocation or employment. ”

The exception in clause 2 is used to justify the reservations and special provisions for the Malays and the Bumiputras of Sabah and Sarawak under Article 153. Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast Sabah is a Malaysian state located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the Island of Borneo.

Article 10

Main article: Article 10 of the Constitution of Malaysia
See also: May 13 Incident and Operation Lalang

Article 10 (1) guarantees the freedom of speech, the right to assemble peacefully and the right to form associations to every Malaysian citizen. Article 10 of the Constitution of Malaysia guarantees Malaysian citizens the right to Freedom of speech, Freedom of assembly and The May 13 Incident is a term for the Sino - Malay Race riots in Kuala Lumpur (then part of the state of Selangor Operation Lalang ( Weeding Operation; also referred to as Ops Lalang) was carried out on October 27, 1987 by the Malaysian However, Parliament may by law impose restrictions on these rights in the interest of the security of the Federation, friendly relations with other countries, public order, morality; and restrictions designed to protect the privileges of Parliament, to provide against contempt of court, defamation, or incitement to any offence.

Article 10 is a key provision of Part II of the Constitution, and has been regarded as "of paramount importance" by the judicial community in Malaysia. However, it has been argued that the rights of Part II, in particular Article 10, "have been so heavily qualified by other parts of the Constitution, for example, Part XI in relation to special and emergency powers, and the permanent state of emergency that has existed since 1969, that much of [the Constitution's] high principles are lost. "[5]

Article 10 (4) states that Parliament may pass law prohibiting the questioning of any matter, right, status, position, privilege, sovereignty or prerogative established or protected by the provisions of Part III, article 152, 153 or 181 of the constitution.

Several acts of law regulate the freedoms granted by Article 10, such as the Official Secrets Act, which makes it a crime to disseminate information classified as an official secret. The Official Secrets Act 1972 (Act 88 also known as the OSA, is a statute in Malaysia prohibiting the dissemination of information classified as an official secret

The Sedition Act 1948 makes it an offence to engage in acts with a "seditious tendency", including but not limited to the spoken word and publications; conviction may result in a sentence of a fine up to RM5,000, three years in jail, or both. The Sedition Act in Malaysia is a law prohibiting discourse deemed as seditious. This is about the law term For other uses see Sedition (disambiguation Sedition is a term of Law which refers to covert conduct Ringgit ( Malay for "jagged" mostly refers to the Malaysian ringgit, which is the local currency in Malaysia, but it can also refer

The Public Order (Preservation) Ordinance 1958 allows the Police to declare certain areas "restricted", and to regulate processions or meetings of five persons or more. The Royal Malaysian Police (RMP or Polis Diraja Malaysia (PDRM in Malay, is a part of the security forces structure in Malaysia. The maximum sentence for the violation of a restricted area order is imprisonment of 10 years and whipping. In Law, a sentence forms the final act of a Judge -ruled process and also the symbolic principal act connected to his function [6]

Other laws curtailing the freedoms of Article 10 are the Police Act 1967, which criminalises the gathering of three or more people in a public place without a licence, and the Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984, which grants the Home Affairs Minister "absolute discretion" in the granting and revoking of publishing permits, and also makes it a criminal offense to possess a printing press without a licence. The Printing Presses and Publications Act 1984 is a Malaysian Statute governing Publishing and the usage of Printing presses in Malaysia A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image [7]

The Sedition Act in particular has been widely commented upon by jurists for the bounds it places on freedom of speech. Justice Raja Azlan Shah (later the Yang di-Pertuan Agong) once said:

“The right to free speech ceases at the point where it comes within the mischief of the Sedition Act. Duli Yang Maha Mulia Paduka Seri Sultan Azlan Muhibbuddin Shah ibni Almarhum Sultan Yusuff Izzuddin Shah Ghafarullahu-Lah, GCB, KStJ (born The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the highest ranking office created by the constitution of the federation of Malaysia [8]”

Article 11

Though Islam is the religion of the Federation, Article 11 provides that every person has the right to profess and practice his own religion. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Every person has the right to propagate his religion, but state law and, in respect of the Federal Territory, federal law may control or restrict the propagation of any religion, doctrine or belief among persons professing the Muslim religion. There is, however, freedom to carry on missionary work among non-Muslims.

Article 13

Article 13 provides that no person may be deprived of property save in accordance with law. No law may provide for the compulsory acquisition or use of property without adequate compensation.

Article 32

Article 32 of the Constitution of Malaysia provides for a Supreme Head of the Federation, to be called the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, who shall take precedence over all persons in the Federation and shall not be liable to any proceedings whatsoever in any court. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the highest ranking office created by the constitution of the federation of Malaysia

The Consort of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is to be called the Raja Permaisuri Agong shall take precedence next after the Yang di-Pertuan Agong over all other persons in the Federation. Raja Permaisuri Agong, or in full Seri Paduka Baginda Raja Permaisuri Agong, is the title given to the Queen of Malaysia, consort of the Yang di-Pertuan Agong

The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers for a term of five years, but may at any time resign his office by writing to the Conference of Rulers or be removed from office by the Conference of Rulers, and shall cease to hold office on ceasing to be a Ruler. The Conference of Rulers (also Council of Rulers or Durbar, Malay Majlis Raja-Raja) in Malaysia is a council comprising the nine rulers of the

Article 121

Further information: Status of religious freedom in Malaysia

In 2006 a judge ruled that Article 121 limited the federal courts from ruling on matters ruled on by the Syariah court (Islamic court). The status of religious freedom in Malaysia is a controversial issue

Article 149

Article 149 gives power to the Parliament to pass laws to suspend a person's fundamental rights vested to him in Part II of the Constitution if the Parliament believes that the person is a threat to national security or public order notwithstanding the fact that the laws are conflicting with Article 5, 9, 10 and 13 and 79.

The laws passed to the effect of this article include, to name a few:

The Acts mentioned above recognize the death penalty, the detention without trial, the caning and the silencing of people critical to the government to be lawful although they contradict with the articles on fundamental rights in Part II of the Constitution.

Article 150

This article permits the Yang di-Pertuan Agong to issue a Proclamation of Emergency and to govern by issuing ordinances that are not subject to judicial review if the Yang di-Pertuan Agong is satisfied that a grave emergency exists whereby the security, or the economic life, or public order in the Federation or any part thereof is threatened. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the highest ranking office created by the constitution of the federation of Malaysia

Article 152

Article 152 states that the national language is the Malay language. The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the However, the Constitution guarantees the freedom of learning and using of other languages, except on official purposes. Official purposes here means any purpose of the Government, whether Federal or State, and includes any purpose of a public authority. To this effect, all court proceedings and parliamentary documents and meetings are conducted in Malay.

The official script for the Malay language is also stated in Article 152 as rumi or the Latin script. The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the However, use of Jawi is not prohibited.

Article 153

Main article: Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia

Article 153 grants the Yang di-Pertuan Agong, or King of Malaysia, responsibility for safeguarding the rights and privileges of the Malay and other indigenous peoples of Malaysia, collectively referred to as Bumiputra. Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia grants the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia responsibility for The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the highest ranking office created by the constitution of the federation of Malaysia The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is the highest ranking office created by the constitution of the federation of Malaysia Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and The article specifies how the federal government may protect the interest of these groups by establishing quotas for entry into the civil service, public scholarships and public education. The politics of Malaysia takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Malaysia is the Head of government See also Bureaucrat The term civil service has two distinct meanings Branch of governmental service in which individuals are hired on the basis A scholarship is an award of access to an institution or a financial aid award for an individual student scholar for the purpose of furthering their Education Public education is education mandated for or offered to the children of the general public by the Government, whether national regional or local provided by an institution It is often considered to be part of the social contract. The social contract in Malaysia refers to the agreement made by the country's founding fathers in the Constitution.

Originally there was no reference made to other indigenous peoples of Malaysia (then Malaya) such as the Orang Asli, but with the union of Malaya with Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak in 1963, the Constitution was amended so as to provide similar privileges for the indigenous peoples of East Malaysia (Sabah and Sarawak), grouping them with the Malays as Bumiputra. Orang Asli ( lit, "original peoples" or " Aboriginal peoples " in Malay) is a general term used for any indigenous groups that are The Federation of Malaya (Persekutuan Tanah Melayu was a federation of 11 states formed on January 31 1948 from the nine Malay states and the British Singapore Sabah is a Malaysian state located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the Island of Borneo.

The scope of Article 153 is limited by Article 136, which requires that civil servants be treated impartially regardless of race. Clause 5 of article 153 specifically reaffirms article 136 of the constitution which states: All persons of whatever race in the same grade in the service of the Federation shall, subject to the terms and conditions of their employment, be treated impartially.

Clause 9 of article 153 states Nothing in this Article shall empower Parliament to restrict business or trade solely for the purpose of reservations for Malays.

The Reid Commission suggested that these provisions would be temporary in nature and be revisited in 15 years, and that a report should be presented to the appropriate legislature (currently the Parliament of Malaysia) and that the "legislature should then determine either to retain or to reduce any quota or to discontinue it entirely. The Reid Commission was an independent commission responsible for drafting the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya prior to Malayan independence from Britain The Parliament of Malaysia (Parlimen Malaysia is the national Legislature of Malaysia, based on the Westminster system. "

Under Article 153, and due to the 13th May 1969 riots, the New Economic Policy was introduced. For the Soviet New Economic Policy see New Economic Policy. The Malaysian New Economic Policy ( NEP or DEB for Dasar The NEP aimed to eradicate poverty irrespective of race by expanding the economic pie so that the Chinese share of the economy would not be reduced in absolute terms but only relatively. The aim was for the Malays to have a 30% equity share of the economy, as opposed to the 4% they held in 1970. Foreigners and Chinese held much of the rest. [9]

The NEP appeared to be derived from Article 153 and could be viewed as being in line with its wording. Although Article 153 would have been up for review in 1972, fifteen years after Malaysia's independence in 1957, due to the May 13 Incident it remained unreviewed. The May 13 Incident is a term for the Sino - Malay Race riots in Kuala Lumpur (then part of the state of Selangor A new expiration date of 1991 for the NEP was set, twenty years after its implementation. [10]

However, the NEP was said to have failed to have met its targets and was continued under a new policy called the National Development Policy. The National Development Policy replaced the Malaysian New Economic Policy in 1990 but continued to pursue most of NEP policies

Article 160

Main article: Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia

Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia defines various terms used in the Constitution. Article 160 of the Constitution of Malaysia defines various terms used in the Constitution. It has an important impact on Islam in Malaysia and the Malay people due to its definition of a Malay person under clause 2. Islam is the official religion of Malaysia, and the Government actively promotes the spread of Islam in the country and its friendship with other Muslim countries Malays (Melayu are an Ethnic group of Austronesian peoples predominantly inhabiting the Malay Peninsula, the east coast of Sumatra, the coast

It took effect after August 31, 1957 ("Merdeka Day" or "Independence Day") in West Malaysia, and took effect in Singapore and East Malaysia when they merged with Malaya in 1963. Hari Merdeka ( Independence Day) is a national day of Malaysia commemorating the independence of the Federation of Malaya from British colonial Peninsular Malaysia ( Semenanjung Malaysia) also known as Malaya or West Malaysia, is the part of Malaysia which lies on Singapore East Malaysia consists of the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak, located on the island of Borneo to the east across the South The Federation of Malaya (Persekutuan Tanah Melayu was a federation of 11 states formed on January 31 1948 from the nine Malay states and the British The article no longer applies to Singapore, as it declared independence from Malaysia in 1965; however, it does affect the legal status of Singaporean Malays when they enter Malaysia.

The article defines a Malay as a Malaysian citizen born to a Malaysian citizen who professes to be a Muslim, habitually speaks the Malay language, adheres to Malay customs, and is domiciled in Malaysia or Singapore. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Malay language ( ISO 639-1 code MS is an Austronesian language spoken by the Malay people and people of other ethnic groups who reside in the For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and Singapore As a result, Malay citizens who convert out of Islam are no longer considered Malay under the law. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Hence, the Bumiputra privileges afforded to Malays under Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia, the New Economic Policy (NEP), etc. Article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia grants the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (King of Malaysia responsibility for For the Malaysian New Economic Policy see Malaysian New Economic Policy. are forfeit for such converts.

Likewise, a non-Malay Malaysian who converts to Islam can lay claim to Bumiputra privileges, provided he meets the other conditions. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A higher education textbook conforming to the government Malaysian studies syllabus states: "This explains the fact that when a non-Malay embraces Islam, he is said to masuk Melayu (become a Malay). That person is automatically assumed to be fluent in the Malay language and to be living like a Malay as a result of his close association with the Malays. "

It is interesting to note that a Malay from Sabah or Sarawak is listed as a Bumiputra of Sabah and Sarawak in the Constitution, separate from Malays of the Peninsular. Sabah is a Malaysian state located on the northern portion of the island of Borneo. Sarawak is one of two Malaysian states on the Island of Borneo.

Article 181

Article 181 guarantees the sovereignty, rights, powers and jurisdictions of each Malay Ruler within their respective states. They also cannot be charged in a court of law in their official capacities as a Ruler.

The Malay Rulers can be charged on any personal wrongdoing, outside of their role and duties as a Ruler. However, the charges cannot be carried out in a normal court of law, but in a Special Tribunal under the purview of the Council of Rulers.

See also

Notes and references

  1. ^ Ahmad, Zainon & Phang, Llew-Ann (Oct. The Reid Commission was an independent commission responsible for drafting the Constitution of the Federation of Malaya prior to Malayan independence from Britain The law of Malaysia is mainly based on the Common law legal system South East Asia whose strategic sea-lane position brought trade and foreign influences that fundamentally influenced its history The politics of Malaysia takes place in a framework of a federal parliamentary monarchy, whereby the Prime Minister of Malaysia is the Head of government Elections in Malaysia (and previously Malaya exist at two levels national level and state level The status of religious freedom in Malaysia is a controversial issue The 1988 Malaysian constitutional crisis was a series of events that began with United Malays National Organisation (UMNO general election in 1987 and ended with the suspension 1, 2005). The all-powerful executive. The Sun.
  2. ^ Wu, Min Aun & Hickling, R. H. (2003). Hickling's Malaysian Public Law, p. 19. Petaling Jaya: Pearson Malaysia. ISBN 983-74-2518-0.
  3. ^ Wu & Hickling, p. 33.
  4. ^ Mageswari, M. . "Appeals Court: Juveniles cannot be held at King's pleasure", The Star, 2007-07-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France.  
  5. ^ Wu & Hickling, p. 34.
  6. ^ Means, Gordon P. (1991). Malaysian Politics: The Second Generation, pp. 142–143, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-588988-6.
  7. ^ Rachagan, S. Sothi (1993). Law and the Electoral Process in Malaysia, pp. 163, 169–170. Kuala Lumpur: University of Malaya Press. ISBN 967-9940-45-4.
  8. ^ Singh, Bhag (Dec. 12, 2006). Seditious speeches. Malaysia Today.
  9. ^ Ye p. 20.
  10. ^ Ye p. 95.

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