Caligula
Emperor of the Roman Empire
Bust of Caligula in the Louvre
Reign	16 March 37 AD – 24 January 41 AD (Consul from 39)
Full name	Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus
Born	August 31, 12(12-08-31)
Died	January 24, 41 (aged 28)
Predecessor	Tiberius
Successor	Claudius
Wives	1) Junia Claudilla, 33–34 2) Livia Orestilla, 37 or 38 3) Lollia Paulina, 38 4) Caesonia, ?–41
Issue	Julia Drusilla
Dynasty	Julio-Claudian
Father	Germanicus
Mother	Agrippina the Elder

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31, 12 – January 24, 41), more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (pronounced /kəˈlɪɡjʊlə/, meaning "little [soldier's] boots"), was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 16 March 37 until his assassination on 24 January 41. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Louvre Museum (Musée du Louvre located in Paris is the world's most visited art museum a historic monument and a national museum of France Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Junia Claudilla (d AD 34 36 or 37 also known as Junia Claudia, was the first wife of the Roman Emperor Caligula before he came to power Year 33 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 34 was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Livia Orestilla, or Cornelia Orestilla was the second wife of the Roman Emperor Caligula in 37 or 38. Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 38 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Lollia Paulina (PIR2 L 308 (died 49 was a noble Roman woman who lived in the 1st century Year 38 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Milonia Caesonia ( PIR2 M 590 (6-41 was a Roman Empress She rose from modest origins to become the fourth and last wife of the Roman Emperor Caligula Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Julia Vipsania Agrippina ( Classical Latin: AGRIPPINA•GERMANICI (14 BC – 18 October 33) most commonly known as Agrippina Major Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Caligula was the third emperor of the Roman Empire, and a member of the Julio-Claudian dynasty which descended from Augustus. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was

Caligula's father, Germanicus, was the adopted son of emperor Tiberius and one of Rome's most beloved generals. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) In Ancient Rome, Adoption of boys was a fairly common procedure particularly in the upper senatorial class Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman The young Gaius earned his nickname, meaning "little [soldier's] boots", while travelling with his father on military campaigns in Germania. Germania was the Latin Exonym for When Germanicus died in Antioch in 19, his mother Agrippina the Elder returned to Rome with her six children, where she became entangled in an increasingly bitter feud with Tiberius. Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Year 19 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Julia Vipsania Agrippina ( Classical Latin: AGRIPPINA•GERMANICI (14 BC – 18 October 33) most commonly known as Agrippina Major During the course of the 20s and 30s, many of Caligula's relatives, including Agrippina and two elder brothers, died in mysterious circumstances. Note Sometimes the ' 20s is used as shorthand for the 1920s, the 1820s, or other such decades in various centuries Events and Note Sometimes the ' 30s is used as shorthand for the 1930s, the 1830s, or other such decades in various centuries Events and Trends Caligula withdrew to the island of Capri in 31, where Tiberius himself had retired since 26, and eventually succeeded his adoptive grandfather upon his death on 16 March 37. Capri ( Italian pronunciation Cápri usual English pronunciation Caprí is an Italian island off the Sorrentine Peninsula, on the south side Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.

There are few surviving sources on reign of Caligula, none of which paint the emperor in a favorable light, instead focusing upon his cruelty, extravagance and sexual perversity, presenting him as an insane tyrant. In modern usage a tyrant is a single ruler holding absolute power over a State or within an Organization. While the reliability of these sources has been difficult to assess, what is known is that during his brief reign, Caligula worked to increase the authority of the Principate, but struggled to maintain his position in the face of several conspiracies to overthrow him. The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, He focused much of his attention on ambitious construction projects, and annexed Mauretania but failed to conquer Britain. In Antiquity Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (named after the Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 This was because of his insanity; instead of sailing towards Britain, he ordered his army to gather seashells for him .

On 24 January 41, Caligula was assassinated as the result of a conspiracy involving members of his own bodyguard and the Roman Senate. Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. The conspirators' attempt to use the opportunity to restore the Roman Republic was thwarted, as the same day the Praetorian Guard declared Caligula's uncle Claudius emperor in his place. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to

Early life

Family

See Julio-Claudian Family Tree. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA See also Gaius Julius Caesar, for others of the same name Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC - AD 4 most commonly known as Julius Caesar, was For other men named Lucius (Julius Caesar see Lucius Julius Caesar Lucius Julius Caesar (17 BC-2 most commonly known as Lucius Caesar Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus (12 BC-14 also known as Agrippa Postumus or Postumus Agrippa, was a son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Nero Claudius Drusus, later Drusus Julius Caesar (his adoptive name (13 BC- September 14 23) was the only child of Roman Emperor Tiberius Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, known as Tiberius Gemellus, ( 10 October AD 19 &ndash AD 37 or 38 was the son of Drusus and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Claudia Antonia ( Classical Latin: ANTONIA•CLAUDII•CAESARIS•FILIA (ca Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor For the 1669 Tragedy by French Dramatist Jean Racine, see Britannicus (play. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Claudia Augusta (PIR2 C 1061 was the only daughter of the Roman Emperor Nero by his second wife Roman Empress Poppaea Sabina. The Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire has a Family tree complicated by multiple marriages between the members of the Gens Julia

Born as Gaius Julius Caesar Germanicus on August 31, 12, at the resort of Antium. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne ^[1] He was the third of six surviving children born to Germanicus and Agrippina the Elder. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Julia Vipsania Agrippina ( Classical Latin: AGRIPPINA•GERMANICI (14 BC – 18 October 33) most commonly known as Agrippina Major ^[2] Gaius' brothers were Nero and Drusus. Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus (6&ndash30 was a close relative of the Roman Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Drusus Julius Caesar, also referred to as Drusus III (7 &ndash 33 was a member of a noble family of Ancient Rome. ^[2] His sisters were Julia Livilla, Drusilla and Agrippina the Younger. Julia Livilla ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•LIVILLA or IVLIA•GERMANICI•FILIA ( Lesbos, early 18 - Pandateria (modern Ventotene This article is about the sister of the Roman Emperor Caligula. Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 ^[2] Gaius was also nephew to Claudius (the future emperor). Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to ^[3]

Gaius' father, Germanicus, was a prominent member of the Julio-Claudian family and was revered as one of the most beloved generals of the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial ^[4] He was the son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia Minor. Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, born Decimus Claudius Drusus (the date of his name change is unknown and variously called Drusus, Drusus I, Nero Antonia Minor ( PIR2 A 885 also known as Antonia the Younger or simply Antonia ( 31 January 36 BC-September/October 37 was a Germanicus was grandson to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia, as well as the great-nephew and adoptive grandson of Augustus. Tiberius Claudius Nero (ca 85 - 33 BC was a member of the Claudian Family of Ancient Rome. Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Julia Augusta ( Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA IVLIA•AVGVSTA (58 BC-29 AD was the wife of Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was ^[5]

Agrippina the Elder was the daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Elder. Agrippa redirects here For other uses of the name see Agrippa (disambiguation. Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA ^[2] She was also a granddaughter of Augustus and Scribonia. Scribonia (68 BC-16 was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo and Cornelia Sulla (the daughter of Faustus Cornelius Sulla, the granddaughter of Pompey ^[2]

Youth and early career

A caliga. For the Roman Catholic liturgical garment Caligae, see Liturgical stockings.

As a boy of just two or three, Gaius accompanied his father, Germanicus, on military campaigns in the north of Germania and became the mascot of his father's army. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Germania was the Latin Exonym for ^[6] The soldiers were amused that Gaius was dressed in a miniature soldier's uniform, including boots and armor. ^[6] He was soon given his nickname Caligula, meaning "Little (Soldier's) boots" in Latin, after the small boots he wore as part of his uniform. ^[7] Gaius, though, reportedly grew to dislike this nickname. ^[8]

At the age of seven, Caligula also accompanied Germanicus on his expedition to Syria. ^[9] Upon return, Caligula's father died on October 10, 19. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated Year 19 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Suetonius reports that Germanicus was poisoned in Syria by an agent of Tiberius who viewed Germanicus as a political rival. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman ^[10]

After the death of his father, Caligula lived with his mother until relations between her and Tiberius deteriorated. ^[9] Tiberius would not allow Agrippina to remarry for fear her husband would be a rival. ^[11] Agrippina and Caligula's brother, Nero Caesar, were banished in 29 on charges of treason. Nero Julius Caesar Germanicus (6&ndash30 was a close relative of the Roman Emperors of the Julio-Claudian dynasty. Year 29 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[12][13] The adolescent Caligula was then sent to live first with his great-grandmother, and Tiberius' mother, Livia. Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Julia Augusta ( Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA IVLIA•AVGVSTA (58 BC-29 AD was the wife of ^[9] Following Livia's death, he was sent to live with his grandmother Antonia. ^[9] In 30, his brother, Drusus Caesar, was imprisoned on charges of treason and his brother Nero died in exile from either starvation or suicide. Year 30 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Drusus Julius Caesar, also referred to as Drusus III (7 &ndash 33 was a member of a noble family of Ancient Rome. ^[14][13] Suetonius writes that after the banishment of his mother and brothers, Caligula and his sisters were nothing more than prisoners of Tiberius under close watch of soldiers. ^[15]

In 31, Caligula was remanded to the personal care of Tiberius on Capri, where he lived for six years. Year 31 was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Capri ( Italian pronunciation Cápri usual English pronunciation Caprí is an Italian island off the Sorrentine Peninsula, on the south side ^[9] To the surprise of many, Caligula was spared by Tiberius. ^[16] According to historians, Caligula was an excellent natural actor and, recognizing danger, hid all his resentment towards Tiberius. An actor, actress, player or thespian (see terminology) is a person who Acts in a Dramatic production and who works ^[17][9] An observer said of Caligula, "Never was there a better servant or a worse master!"^[9][17]

In 33, Tiberius gave Caligula an honorary quaestorship, a position he held until his reign. Year 33 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Quaestors were originally appointed by the Consuls to investigate criminal acts and determine if the consul needed to take public action ^[18] Meanwhile, both Caligula's mother and brother, Drusus, died in prison. ^[19][20] Caligula was briefly married to Junia Claudilla in 33, though she died in childbirth the following year. ^[21] Caligula spent time befriending the Praetorian Prefect, Naevius Sutorius Macro, an important ally. Quintus Naevius Cordus Sutorius Macro (21 BC - 38 AD often abbreviated Naevius Sutorius Macro, or simply Macro, was a prefect of the Roman ^[21] Macro spoke well of Caligula to Tiberius, attempting to quell any ill will or suspicion the Emperor felt towards Caligula. ^[22]

In 35, Caligula was named joint heir to the throne along with Tiberius Gemellus. Year 35 was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, known as Tiberius Gemellus, ( 10 October AD 19 &ndash AD 37 or 38 was the son of Drusus and ^[23]

Emperor

Early reign

Caligula Depositing the Ashes of his Mother and Brother in the Tomb of his Ancestors, by Eustache Le Sueur, 1647

When Tiberius died on March 16, 37, his estate and the titles of the Principate were left to Caligula and Tiberius' own grandson, Gemellus, who were to serve as joint heirs. Eustache Le Sueur or Lesueur ( 19 November 1617 – 30 April 1655) one of the founders of the French Academy of painting Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, known as Tiberius Gemellus, ( 10 October AD 19 &ndash AD 37 or 38 was the son of Drusus and Despite Tiberius being 77 and on his death bed, some ancient historians still suppose he was murdered. ^[24][21] Tacitus writes that the Praetorian Prefect, Macro, smothered Tiberius with a pillow to hasten Caligula's accession, much to the joy of the Roman people,^[24] and Suetonius writes that Caligula may have carried out the killing. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Quintus Naevius Cordus Sutorius Macro (21 BC - 38 AD often abbreviated Naevius Sutorius Macro, or simply Macro, was a prefect of the Roman Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. ^[21] Philo and Josephus, though, record Tiberius dying a natural death. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus ^[25] Backed by Macro, Caligula had Tiberius’ will nullified with regards to Gemellus on grounds of insanity, but otherwise carried out Tiberius' wishes. ^[26]

Caligula accepted the powers of the Principate as conferred by the Senate and entered Rome on March 28 amid a crowd that hailed him as "our baby" and "our star," among other nicknames. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. ^[27] Caligula is described as the first emperor who was admired by everyone in "all the world, from the rising to the setting sun. "^[28] Caligula was loved by many for being the beloved son of the popular Germanicus,^[27] but also because he was not Tiberius. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman ^[29] It was also said by Suetonius that over one-hundred and sixty thousand animals were sacrificed during three months of public rejoicing to usher in his reign. ^[30][31] Philo describes the first seven months of Caligula's reign as completely blissful. ^[32]

Caligula's first acts were said to be generous in spirit, though many were political in nature. ^[26] To gain support, he granted bonuses to those in the military including the Praetorian Guard, city troops and the army outside of Italy. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated ^[26] He destroyed Tiberius' treason papers, declared that treason trials were a thing of the past and recalled exiles. In Law, treason is the Crime that covers some of the more serious acts of disloyalty to one's sovereign or Nation. ^[33] He helped those who had been harmed by the Imperial tax system, banished sex offenders from the empire and put on lavish spectacles for the public, such as gladiator battles. ^[34][35] Caligula also collected and brought back the bones of his mother and of his brothers and deposited their remains in the tomb of Augustus. ^[36]

Illness, conspiracies and a change in attitude

Following an auspicious start to his reign, Caligula fell seriously ill in October of 37. Philo is the main historian to describe this illness,^[37] though Cassius Dio mentions it in passing. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was ^[38] Philo states that Caligula's increased bath-taking, drinking, and sex after becoming emperor caused him to become ill. ^[39] It was said that the entire empire was paralyzed with sadness and sympathy over Caligula’s affliction. ^[40] Caligula completely recovered from this illness, but Philo highlights Caligula's near-death experience as a turning point in his reign. ^[41] Josephus characterizes Caligula as a noble and moderate ruler for the first two years of his rule before a turn for the worse occurred. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus ^[42]

Shortly after recovering from his illness, Caligula had several loyal individuals killed who had promised their lives for his in the event of a recovery. ^[43] Caligula had his wife banished and his father-in-law, Marcus Silanus, and his cousin, Tiberius Gemellus, were forced to commit suicide. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, known as Tiberius Gemellus, ( 10 October AD 19 &ndash AD 37 or 38 was the son of Drusus and ^[44][43]

Philo states Gemellus, in line to become emperor, plotted against Caligula while he was ill. ^[45] Silanus, prior to killing himself, was formally put on trial by Caligula. ^[46] Julius Graecinus was ordered to prosecute Silanus, but refused and was executed as well. ^[46] It is unknown if the plans of Gemellus and Silanus were related or separate. Suetonius considers these plots nothing more than Caligula's imagination. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. ^[47]

Public reform

Quadran celebrating the abolition of a tax in 38 AD by Caligula. The quadrans (literally meaning "a quarter" was a low-value Roman Bronze Coin worth one fourth of an as. The obverse of the coin contains a picture of the liberty cap which symbolizes the liberation of the people from the tax burden.

In 38, Caligula focused his attention on political and public reform. Year 38 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. He published the accounts of public funds, which had not been made public during the reign of Tiberius. He aided those who lost property in fires, abolishing certain taxes and gave out prizes to the public and gymnastic events. He also allowed new members into the equestrian and senatorial orders. ^[48]

Perhaps most significantly, he restored the practice of democratic elections. ^[49] Cassius Dio said that this act "though delighting the rabble, grieved the sensible, who stopped to reflect, that if the offices should fall once more into the hands of the many . Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was . . many disasters would result". ^[50]

During the same year, though, Caligula also was criticized for executing people without full trials. The most significant execution was that of Macro, to whom, in many ways, Caligula owed his status as emperor. ^[38]

Financial crisis and famine

According to Cassius Dio, a financial crisis emerged in 39. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[38] Suetonius places the beginning of this crisis in 38. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Year 38 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[51] Caligula’s political payments for support, generosity and extravagance had exhausted the state’s treasury. Ancient historians state that Caligula began falsely accusing, fining and even killing individuals for the purpose of seizing their estates. ^[52] A number of other desperate measures by Caligula are described by historians. In order to gain funds, Caligula asked the public to lend the state money. ^[53] Caligula levied taxes on lawsuits, marriage and prostitution. ^[54] Caligula began auctioning the lives of the gladiators at shows. ^[52][55] Wills that left items to Tiberius were interpreted now to leave the items to Caligula. ^[56] Centurions who had acquired property during plundering were forced to turn over spoils to the state. ^[56] The current and past highway commissioners were accused of incompetence and embezzlement and forced to repay money. ^[56]

The Vatican Obelisk was first brought from Egypt to Rome by Caligula. It was the centerpiece of a large racetrack he built.

A brief famine of an unknown size occurred, perhaps caused by this financial crisis, according to Suetonius due to public carriages being seized by Caligula. ^[52], according to Seneca because grain imports were disturbed by Caligula using boats for a pontoon bridge. ^[57]

Construction

Despite financial difficulties, Caligula embarked on a number of construction projects during his reign. Some were for the public good while others were for himself.

Josephus describes as Caligula's greatest contribution to have improved the harbours at Rhegium and Sicily, thereby allowing grain imports from Egypt to increase. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus Reggio di Calabria (Italian pronunciation /ˈrɛʤo ˌdikaˈlabrja/ Calabrian dialect: Rìggiu, Greek-Calabrian: Righi, Greek: Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. ^[58] These improvements may have been in response to the famine.

Caligula completed the temple of Augustus and the theatre of Pompey and began an amphitheatre beside the Saepta. ^[59] He also had the imperial palace repainted. ^[60] He began the aqueducts Aqua Claudia and Anio Novus, which Pliny the Elder considered engineering marvels. Aqua Claudia ( Latin, literally "the Claudian water" was an Aqueduct which like the Anio Novus was begun by Anio Novus (named after a river Anio at the forty-second mile of the Via Sublacensis from which the water was taken originally is an Aqueduct Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author ^[61] He built a large racetrack known as the circus of Gaius and Nero and had an Egyptian obelisk (now known as the Vatican Obelisk) transported to Rome by sea and erected in the middle of it. ^[62] At Syracuse, he repaired the city walls and the temples of the gods. ^[59] He had new roads built and pushed to keep roads in good condition. ^[63] He had planned to rebuild the palace of Polycrates at Samos, to finish the temple of Didymaean Apollo at Ephesus and to found a city high up in the Alps. ^[59] He also planned to dig a canal through the Isthmus in Greece and sent a chief centurion to survey the work. ^[59]

The hull of one of two ships recovered from Lake Nemi during the 1930s. Lake Nemi (Nemorensis Lacus is a small circular Volcanic lake in the Lazio region of Italy 30 kilometers south of Rome, taking its name from This massive vessel served as an elaborate floating palace to the emperor. The Nemi Ships were huge and exceedingly luxurious Ships built by the Roman emperor Caligula in the first century AD at Lake Nemi.

In 39, Caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons, stretching for over two miles from the resort of Baiae to the neighboring port of Puteoli. Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. A pontoon bridge or floating bridge is a Bridge that floats on water supported by barge-or-boat-like pontoons to support the bridge deck and its dynamic A pontoon is a flat-bottomed Boat or the floats used to support a structure on water Baiae (in modern Italian only Baia) is a Frazione of the Comune of Bacoli, in the Campania region of Italy Pozzuoli is a city of the Province of Naples, in the Italian region of Campania. ^[64] It was said that the bridge was to rival that of Persian King Xerxes' crossing of the Hellespont. ^[64] Caligula, a man who could not swim,^[65] then proceeded to ride his favorite horse, Incitatus, across, wearing the breastplate of Alexander the Great. Incitatus was Roman emperor Caligula 's favored Horse. Its name is a Latin adjective meaning "swift" or "at full gallop" Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' ^[64] This act was in defiance of Tiberius' soothsayer Thrasyllus of Mendes prediction that he had "no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the Bay of Baiae". Thrasyllus of Mendes whose full name was Tiberius Claudius Thrasyllus (flourished 1st century BC & 1st century died 36 Greek: ο Τιβερίος Κλαύδιος ^[64]

Caligula also had two large ships constructed for himself. These two sunken ships were found at the bottom of Lake Nemi. The Nemi Ships were huge and exceedingly luxurious Ships built by the Roman emperor Caligula in the first century AD at Lake Nemi. Lake Nemi (Nemorensis Lacus is a small circular Volcanic lake in the Lazio region of Italy 30 kilometers south of Rome, taking its name from The ships are among the largest vessels in the ancient world. The smaller of the ships was designed as a temple dedicated to Diana. The larger ship was essentially an elaborate floating palace that counted marble floors and plumbing among its amenities.

Feud with the Senate

In 39, relations between Caligula and the Roman Senate deteriorated. Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[66] On what they disagreed is unknown. A number of factors, though, aggravated this feud. Prior to Caligula's appointment, The Roman Senate was accustomed to ruling without an emperor in Rome since Tiberius' departure for Capri in 26. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Year 26 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[67] Additionally, Tiberius' treason trials had eliminated a number of pro-Julian senators such as Gallus Asinius. Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus was an ambitious Roman Senator with family connections to the Julio-Claudian house ^[68]

Caligula reviewed Tiberius' records of treason trials and decided that numerous senators, based on their actions during these trials, were not trustworthy. ^[66] He ordered a new set of investigations and trials. ^[66] He replaced the consul and had several senators put to death. ^[69] Suetonius reports that other senators were degraded by being forced to wait on him and run beside his chariot. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. ^[69]

Soon after his break with the Senate, Caligula was met with a number of additional conspiracies against him. ^[70] A conspiracy involving his brother-in-law, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, was foiled in late 39. Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[70] Soon after, the governor of Germany, Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus, was executed for connections to a conspiracy. Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus (d 39 was a Roman general and politician ^[70]

Western expansion

In 40, Caligula expanded the Roman Empire into Mauretania and made a significant attempt at expanding into Britannia. Year 40 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. In Antiquity Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (named after the Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. The later action was fully realized by his successors.

Mauretania was a client kingdom of Rome ruled by Ptolemy of Mauretania. Ptolemy of Mauretania or Ptolemy of Morocco (Ptolemy or Ptolemaios Greek ο Πτολεμαίος, Latin PTOLEMAEVS, 1 BC – AD 40 was a prince and Caligula invited Ptolemy to Rome and then had him suddenly executed. ^[71] Mauretania was annexed by Caligula and divided into two provinces. ^[72] This annexation of Mauretania led to a rebellion of some magnitude that was put down under Claudius. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to ^[73] Details on these events are unclear. Cassius Dio had written an entire chapter on the annexation of Mauretania by Caligula, but it is now lost. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was ^[74]

There also seemed to be a northern campaign to Britannia that was aborted. ^[74] This campaign is derided by ancient historians with accounts of Gauls dressed up as Germanic tribesmen at his triumph and Roman troops ordered to collect sea-shells as "spoils of the sea". Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western ^[75] Due to the lack of sources, what precisely occurred and why is a matter of debate even among the primary sources for Caligula's reign. Modern historians have put forward numerous theories in an attempt to explain these actions. This trip to the English Channel could have merely been a training and scouting mission. ^[76] The mission may have been to accept the surrender of the British chieftain Adminius. Adminius, Amminius or Amminus was a son of Cunobelinus, ruler of the Catuvellauni, a tribe of Iron Age Britain. ^[77] "Seashells", or conchae in Latin, may be a metaphor for something else such as female genitalia (perhaps the troops visited brothels) or boats (perhaps they captured several small British boats). ^[78]

Acting like a god

Ruins of the temple of Castor and Pollux in the Forum Romanum. This page refers to the main forum in the center of Rome See Imperial forums or Other forums in Rome (below for other forums in Rome and Ancient resources as well as recent archeological evidence suggest that, at one point, Caligula had the palace extended to annex this structure.

In 40, Caligula began implementing very controversial policies that introduced religion into his political role. Year 40 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Caligula began appearing in public dressed as various gods and demigods such as Hercules, Mercury, Venus and Apollo. Hercules is the Roman name for the Mythical Greek hero Heracles, son of Zeus and the mortal Alcmena. "Alipes" redirects here For the Centipede Genus, see Alipes (centipede. Venus was a major Roman Goddess principally associated with Love, Beauty and fertility, the equivalent of the Greek goddess ^[79] Reportedly, he began referring to himself as a god when meeting with politicians and he was referred to as Jupiter on occasion in public documents. ^[80][81] A sacred precinct was set apart for his worship at Miletus in the province of Asia and two temples were erected for worship of him in Rome. ^[81] The Temple of Castor and Pollux on the Forum was linked directly to the Imperial residence on the Palatine and dedicated to Caligula. The temple of Castor and Pollux is an ancient edifice in the Roman Forum, originally built in gratitude for victory at the Battle ^[81][82] He would appear here on occasion and present himself as a god to the public.

Caligula's religious policy was a departure from the policy of his predecessors. According to Cassius Dio, living Emperors could be worshipped as divine in the east and dead Emperors could be worshipped as divine in Rome. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was ^[83] Augustus also had the public worship his spirit on occasion, but Dio describes this as an extreme act that emperors generally shied away from. Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus ^[83] Caligula took things a step further and had those in Rome, including Senators, worship him as a physical living god. ^[84]

Eastern policy

Caligula needed to quell several riots and conspiracies in the eastern territories during his reign. Aiding him in his actions was his good friend, Herod Agrippa, who became governor of the territories of Batanaea and Trachonitis after Caligula became emperor in 37. For other with this name see Agrippa (disambiguation. Agrippa I also called the Great (10 BC - 44 AD) King of the Jews, Year 37 was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[85]

The cause of tensions in the east was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture, Roman law and the rights of Jews.

Caligula did not trust the prefect of Egypt, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to Tiberius, had conspired against Caligula's mother and had connections with Egyptian separatists. ^[86] In 38, Caligula sent Agrippa to Alexandria unannounced to check on Flaccus. Year 38 was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[87] According to Philo, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews. ^[88] Flaccus tried to placate both the Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in Jewish synagogues. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of ^[89] As a result, riots broke out in the city. ^[90] Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him. ^[91]

In 39, Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and Perea, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of Parthia. Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Herod Antipas (short for Antipatros (before 20 BC &ndash after AD 39) was a first century AD ruler of Galilee and Perea, who bore the title "Galil" redirects here For the weapon see IMI Galil. Galilee (הגליל ha-Galil, lit the province, Perea ("the country beyond" a portion of the kingdom of Herod the Great occupying the eastern side of the Jordan River valley from about one third the Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran Herod Antipas confessed and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was awarded with his territories. ^[42]

Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 40 between Jews and Greeks. Year 40 was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[92] Jews were accused of not honoring the emperor. ^[92] Also, disputes occurred in the city of Jamnia. ^[93] Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it. ^[93] In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the Jewish Temple of Jerusalem. Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name ^[94], a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism. ^[95] In this context, Philo wrote that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria "^[95]

Fearing civil war if the order were carried out, it was delayed for nearly a year by the governor of Syria, Publius Petronius. A Roman governor was an official either elected or appointed to be the chief administrator of Roman law throughout one or more of the many provinces constituting the ^[96] Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order. ^[92]

Scandals

Roman sestertius depicting Caligula, c. The sestertius, or sesterce, was an ancient Roman Coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small Silver, and rare coin issued 38. The reverse shows Caligula's three sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Iulia Livilla, with whom Caligula was rumoured to have carried on incestuous relationships.

Surviving sources present a number of stories about Caligula that illustrate cruelty and insanity.

The contemporaneous sources, Philo of Alexandria and Seneca the Younger, describe an insane Emperor who was self-absorbed, angry, killed on a whim, and who indulged in too much spending and sex. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c ^[97] He is accused of sleeping with other men's wives and bragging about it,^[98] killing for mere amusement,^[99] purposely wasting money on his bridge, causing starvation,^[100] and wanting a statue of himself erected in the Temple of Jerusalem for his worship. Etymology The Hebrew name given in Scripture for the building is Beit HaMikdash or "The Holy House" and only the Temple in Jerusalem is referred to by this name ^[94]

While repeating the earlier stories, the later sources of Suetonius and Cassius Dio add additional tales of insanity. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was They accuse Caligula of incest with his sisters, Agrippina, Drusilla and Julia Livilla, and say he prostituted them to other men. Incest refers to any sexual activity between closely related persons (often within the immediate family that is illegal or socially Taboo. Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 This article is about the sister of the Roman Emperor Caligula. Julia Livilla ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•LIVILLA or IVLIA•GERMANICI•FILIA ( Lesbos, early 18 - Pandateria (modern Ventotene ^[101] They state he sent troops on illogical military exercises. ^[102][74] They also allege he made the palace into a literal brothel. ^[53] Perhaps most famous, they say that Caligula tried to make his horse, Incitatus, a consul and a priest. Incitatus was Roman emperor Caligula 's favored Horse. Its name is a Latin adjective meaning "swift" or "at full gallop" ^[103]

The validity of these accounts is debatable. In Roman political culture, insanity and sexual perversity were often presented hand-in-hand with poor government. ^[104]

Assassination and aftermath

Renaissance picture of Caligula.

Caligula's actions as Emperor were described as being especially harsh to the Senate, the nobility and the equestrian order. ^[105] According to Josephus, these actions led to several failed conspiracies against Caligula. In a political sense conspiracy refers to a group of persons united in the goal of usurping or overthrowing an established political power ^[106] Eventually, a successful murder was planned by officers within the Praetorian Guard led by Cassius Chaerea. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Cassius Chaerea (fl 1st century was a Centurion in the army of Germanicus and served in the Praetorian Guard under the emperor Caligula ^[107] The plot is described as having been planned by three men, but many in the Senate, army and equestrian order were said to have been informed of it and involved in it. ^[108]

According to Josephus, Chaerea had political motivations for the assassination. ^[109] Suetonius sees the motive in Caligula calling Chaerea derogatory names. ^[110] Caligula considered Chaerea effeminate because of a weak voice and for not being firm with tax collection. ^[111] Caligula would mock Chaerea with watchwords like "Priapus" and "Venus". In Greek mythology, Priapus (Πρίαπος was a minor rustic fertility god protector of Livestock, fruit plants gardens and male Genitalia. Venus was a major Roman Goddess principally associated with Love, Beauty and fertility, the equivalent of the Greek goddess ^[112]

On January 24, 41, Chaerea and other guardsmen accosted Caligula while he was addressing an acting troupe of young men during a series of games and dramatics held for the Divine Augustus. Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled Year 41 was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[113] Details on the events vary somewhat from source to source, but they agree that Chaerea was first to stab Caligula followed by a number of conspirators. ^[114] Suetonius records that Caligula's death was similar to that of Julius Caesar. He states that both the elder Gaius Julius Caesar (Julius Caesar) and the younger Gaius Julius Caesar (Caligula) were stabbed 30 times by conspirators led by a man named Cassius (Cassius Longinus and Cassius Chaerea). For the Roman consul see Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 171 BC. ^[115] By the time Caligula's loyal Germanic guard responded, the emperor was already dead. The Germanic guard, stricken with grief and rage, responded with a rampaging attack on the assassins, conspirators, innocent senators and bystanders alike. ^[116]

The Senate attempted to use Caligula's death as an opportunity to restore the Republic. ^[117] Chaerea attempted to convince the military to support the Senate. ^[118] The military, though, remained loyal to the office of the emperor. ^[118] The grieving Roman people assembled and demanded that Caligula's murderers be brought to justice. ^[119] Uncomfortable with lingering imperial support, the assassins sought out and stabbed Caligula's wife, Caesonia, and killed their infant daughter, Julia Drusilla, by smashing her head against a wall. Milonia Caesonia ( PIR2 M 590 (6-41 was a Roman Empress She rose from modest origins to become the fourth and last wife of the Roman Emperor Caligula For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula. ^[120] They were unable to reach Caligula's uncle, Claudius, who was spirited out of the city to a nearby Praetorian camp. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to ^[121] Claudius became emperor after procuring the support of the Praetorian guard and ordered the execution of Chaerea and any other known conspirators involved in the death of Caligula. ^[122] According to Suetonius, Caligula's body was placed under turf until it was burned and entombed by his sisters. He was buried within the Mausoleum of Augustus; in 410 AD during the sack of Rome, the tomb's ashes were scattered. The Mausoleum of Augustus was a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome.

Legacy

Historiography

The history of Caligula’s reign is extremely problematic. Only two sources have survived that were contemporary with Caligula— the works of Philo and Seneca. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Philo’s works, On the Embassy to Gaius and Flaccus, give some details on Caligula’s early reign, but mostly focus on events surrounding the Jewish population in Judea and Egypt with whom he sympathizes. Seneca’s various works give mostly scattered anecdotes on Caligula’s personality. Seneca was almost put to death by Caligula in 39 likely due to his associations with conspirators. Year 39 was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. ^[123]

At one time, there were detailed contemporaneous histories on Caligula, but they are now lost. Additionally, the historians who wrote them are described as biased, either overly critical or praising of Caligula. ^[124] Nonetheless, these lost primary sources, along with the works of Seneca and Philo, were the basis of surviving secondary and tertiary histories on Caligula written by the next generations of historians. A few of the contemporaneous historians are known by name. Fabius Rusticus and Cluvius Rufus both wrote condemning histories on Caligula that are now lost. Fabius Rusticus was a Roman historian who was quoted on several occasions by Tacitus. Cluvius Rufus was a Roman senator governor and historian who was mentioned on several occasions by Tacitus, Suetonius, Josephus and Plutarch Fabius Rusticus was a friend of Seneca who was known for historical embellishment and misrepresentation. ^[125] Cluvius Rufus was a senator involved in the assassination of Caligula. ^[126] Caligula’s sister, Agrippina the Younger, wrote an autobiography that certainly included a detailed explanation of Caligula’s reign, but it too is lost. Julia Agrippina; known as Agrippina Minor ( Latin for the ‘younger’, Classical Latin: IVLIA•AGRIPPINA from the year 50 Agrippina was banished by Caligula for her connection to Marcus Lepidus, who conspired against Caligula. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, or Marcus Aemilius Lf Lepidus (6-39 was the son of a consul by the same name ( Marcus Aemilius Lepidus) ^[127] The inheritance of Nero, Agrippina's son and the future emperor, was seized by Caligula. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Gaetulicus, a poet, produced a number of flattering writings about Caligula, but they too are lost. Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Gaetulicus (d 39 was a Roman general and politician

The bulk of what is known of Caligula comes from Suetonius and Cassius Dio, who were both of the Patrician class. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Suetonius wrote his history on Caligula eighty years after his death, while Cassius Dio wrote his history over 180 years after Caligula’s death. Though Cassius Dio’s work is invaluable because it alone gives a loose chronology of Caligula’s reign, his surviving work is only a summary written by John Xiphilinus, an 11th century monk. Joannes Xiphilinus, epitomator of Dio Cassius, lived at Constantinople during the latter half of the 11th century AD

A handful of other sources also add a limited perspective on Caligula. Josephus gives a detailed description of Caligula’s assassination. Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus Tacitus provides some information on Caligula’s life under Tiberius. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tacitus, the most objective of ancient historians, did write a detailed history of Caligula, but this portion of his Annals is lost. Pliny the Elder’s Natural History also has a few brief references to Caligula. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author

There are few surviving sources on Caligula and no surviving source paints Caligula in a favorable light. The paucity and bias of sources has resulted in significant gaps in the reign of Caligula. Little is written on the first two years of Caligula’s reign. Additionally, there are only limited details on later significant events, such as the annexation of Mauretania, Caligula’s military actions in Britannia, and his feud with the Roman Senate. In Antiquity Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (named after the Britannia was the term originally used by the Romans to refer first to the British Isles, and later to the island of Great Britain. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome.

Health

Insanity

All surviving sources, except Pliny the Elder, characterize Caligula as insane. Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author It is not known whether they are speaking figuratively or literally, though. Additionally, given Caligula's unpopularity among the surviving sources, it is difficult to separate fact from fiction. Recent sources are divided in attempting to ascribe a medical reason for Caligula's behavior, citing as possibilities encephalitis, epilepsy or meningitis. Encephalitis is an acute Inflammation of the Brain, commonly caused by a viral Infection. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. The question of whether or not Caligula was insane remains unanswered.

Bust of Caligula, 1st century. The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar.

Philo of Alexandria, Josephus and Seneca also state Caligula was insane, but describe this madness as a personality trait that came through experience. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus ^{[42][128][129]} Seneca states that Caligula became arrogant, angry and insulting once becoming emperor and uses his personality flaws as examples his readers can learn from. ^[130] According to Josephus, power made Caligula incredibly conceited and led him to think he was a god. ^[42] Philo of Alexandria reports that Caligula became ruthless after nearly dying of his illness in 39. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria ^[131] Juvenal reports he was given a magic potion that drove him insane. Decimus Iunius Iuvenalis, known in English as Juvenal, was a Roman Poet active in the late 1st and early 2nd century AD author of the

Epilepsy

Suetonius said that Caligula suffered from "falling sickness" when he was young. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Epilepsy is a common chronic Neurological disorder that is characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures. ^[132] Modern historians have theorized that Caligula lived with a daily fear of seizures. ^[133] Despite swimming being a part of imperial education, Caligula could not swim. ^[134] Epileptics are encouraged not to swim because light reflecting off water can induce seizures. ^[135] Additionally, Caligula reportedly talked to the full moon. ^[136] Epilepsy was also long associated with the moon. ^[137]

Hyperthyroidism

Some modern historians think that Caligula suffered from hyperthyroidism. Hyperthyroidism is the term for overactive tissue within the Thyroid gland resulting in overproduction and thus an excess of circulating free thyroid hormones Thyroxine ^[138] This diagnosis is mainly attributed to Caligula's irritability and his "stare" as described by Pliny the Elder.

Caligula in fiction

Caligula has been played by John Simm in the 2004 miniseries Imperium Nerone; by Szabolcs Hajdu in the 1996 film Caligula; by John McEnery in the 1985 miniseries A. John Ronald Simm (born 10 July 1970 in Leeds, West Yorkshire) is an English Actor and Musician. John McEnery (born 1 November 1943 in Birmingham England) is a British Actor and Writer. D. ; by Malcolm McDowell in the 1979 film Caligula; and by John Hurt in the 1976 television series I, Claudius. Malcolm McDowell (born Malcolm John Taylor; 13 June 1943 is an English Actor. Caligula is a 1979 Film directed by Tinto Brass, with additional scenes filmed by Giancarlo Lui and Penthouse John Vincent Hurt, CBE (born 22 January 1940 is an English Actor. I Claudius is a 1976 BBC Television adaptation of Robert Graves 's ''I Claudius'' and ''Claudius the God''.

Emlyn Williams was cast as Caligula in the never-completed 1937 film I, Claudius, and Courtney Love appeared as Caligula in a fake trailer for Gore Vidal's Caligula, ostensibly a remake of the 1979 film, but actually a parodic short film by conceptual artist Francesco Vezzoli ^[139]. George Emlyn Williams CBE ( 26 November 1905 &ndash 25 September 1987) known as Emlyn Williams, was a Welsh I Claudius was the proposed 1937 film of the book I Claudius. Courtney Michelle Love (born Courtney Michelle Harrison on July 9 1964 is an American Rock musician and Golden Globe-nominated actress

The play The Reckoning of Kit and Little Boots by Nat Cassidy, examines the lives of the Elizabethan playwright Christopher Marlowe and Caligula, with the fictional conceit that Marlowe was working on a play about Caligula around the time of his (Marlowe's) murder. It emphasizes the similarities between the two characters--both stabbed to death at 29, both in part as a result to their controversial perspectives on religion. The play also focuses on Caligula's love for his sister Drusilla, and his deep-rooted loathing for Tiberius. It received its world premiere in New York City in June 2008. ^{[140] [141]}

Ancestry

Notes

References

Primary sources

• Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 59
• Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, (trans. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was Josephus (AD 37 – c 100 also known as Yosef Ben Matityahu (Joseph son of Matthias and after he became a Roman citizen, as Titus Flavius Josephus W. Whiston), Books XVIII–XIX
• Philo of Alexandria, (trans. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria C. D. Yonge, London, H. G. Bohn, 1854–1890):
  • On the Embassy to Gaius
  • Flaccus
• Seneca the Younger
  • On Firmness
  • On Anger
  • To Marcia, On Consolation
  • On Tranquility of Mind
  • On the Shortness of Life
  • To Polybius, On Consolation
  • To Helvia, On Consolation
  • On Benefits
  • On the Terrors of Death (Epistle IV)
  • On Taking One's Own Life (Epistle LXXVII)
  • On the Value of Advice (Epistle XCIV)
• Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Life of Caligula
• Tacitus, Annals, Book 6

Secondary material

• Caligula: the corruption of power by Anthony A. Lucius Annaeus Seneca (often known simply as Seneca, or Seneca the Younger; Σένεκας in Ancient Greek literature (c Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. Barrett (Batsford 1989) ISBN 0-7134-5487-3
• Grant, Michael, The Twelve Caesars. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975
• Hurley, Donna W. , An Historical and Historiographical Commentary on Suetonius' "Life of C. Caligula". Atlanta, Georgia: Scholars Press. 1993.
• Biography from De Imperatoribus Romanis
• Biography of Gaius Caligula
• Straight Dope article
• Caligula
• A chronological account of his reign
• A critical account of a number of his reported activities
• His genealogical tree
• Caligula at BBC History