For other meanings, see Botany (disambiguation)

Pinguicula grandiflora commonly known as a Butterwort

Example of a cross section of a stem ^[1]

Botany, plant science(s), phytology, or plant biology is a branch of biology and is the scientific study of plant life and development. Pinguicula grandiflora, commonly known as the large-flowered Butterwort, is a Temperate insectivorous plant in the Lentibulariaceae The butterworts are a group of Carnivorous plants comprising the Genus Pinguicula. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism Botany covers a wide range of scientific disciplines that study plants, algae, and fungi including: structure, growth, reproduction, metabolism, development, diseases, and chemical properties and evolutionary relationships between the different groups The study of plants and botany began with tribal lore, used to identify edible, medicinal and poisonous plants, making botany one of the oldest sciences. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal structure of plants The term cell growth is used in two different ways in Biology. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. MOrphogenesis is an EP by Industrial Black metal band.And Oceans. From this ancient interest in plants, the scope of botany has increased to include the study of over 550,000 kinds or species of living organisms.

Scope and importance of botany

Hibiscus

As with other life forms in biology, plant life can be studied from different perspectives, from the molecular, genetic and biochemical level through organelles, cells, tissues, organs, individuals, plant populations, and communities of plants. Hibiscus, or rosemallow, is a large genus of about 200&ndash220 species of Flowering plants in the family Malvaceae (the mallow family Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as In Cell biology, an organelle (pronunciation /ɔː(rgəˡnɛl/ is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function and is usually separately enclosed See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the Tissue is a cellular organizational level intermediate between cells and a complete organism In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology At each of these levels a botanist might be concerned with the classification (taxonomy), structure (anatomy and morphology), or function (physiology) of plant life. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal structure of plants Plant morphology (or phytomorphology) is the general term for the study of the morphology (physical form and external structure of Plants This is usually Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology

Historically, botany covered all organisms that were not considered to be animals. Some of these organisms are no longer considered to be part of the plant kingdom – these include fungi (studied in mycology), lichens (lichenology), bacteria (bacteriology), viruses (virology) and single-celled algae, which are now grouped as part of the Protista. In biological Taxonomy, a kingdom or regnum is a Taxonomic rank in either (historically the highest rank or (in the new three-domain system A fungus (ˈfʌŋgəs is a eukaryotic Organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (ˈfʌndʒaɪ Mycology (from the Greek μύκης meaning "fungus" is the branch of Biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Lichenology is the branch of Mycology that studies the Lichens, Symbiotic Organisms made up by the association of a microscopical Alga The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable Virology is the study of viruses and virus-like agents: their structure classification and evolution their ways to infect and exploit cells for virus reproduction Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this However, attention is still given to these groups by botanists, and fungi, lichens, bacteria and photosynthetic protists are usually covered in introductory botany courses. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy.

The study of plants has importance for a number of reasons. Plants are a fundamental part of life on Earth. They generate the oxygen, food, fibres, fuel and medicine that allow higher life forms to exist. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an Fiber or fibre is a class of Materials that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces similar to lengths of thread. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Plants also absorb carbon dioxide through photosynthesis, a minor greenhouse gas that in large amounts can affect global climate. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared It is believed that the evolution of plants has changed the global atmosphere of the earth early in the earth's history and paleobotanists study ancient plants in the fossil record. Paleobotany, also spelled as palaeobotany (from the Greek words paleon = old and " Botany " study of plants is the branch of A good understanding of plants is crucial to the future of human societies as it allows us to:

• Produce food to feed an expanding population
• Understand fundamental life processes
• Produce medicine and materials to treat diseases and other ailments
• Understand environmental changes more clearly

Human nutrition

Nearly all the food we eat comes (directly and indirectly) from plants like this American long grain rice. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many

Virtually all foods eaten come from plants, either directly from staple foods and other fruit and vegetables, or indirectly through livestock or other animals, which rely on plants for their nutrition. A staple food is a Food that forms the basis of a Traditional diet. The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food Plants are the fundamental base of nearly all food chains because they use the energy from the sun and nutrients from the soil and atmosphere and convert them into a form that can be consumed and utilized by animals; this is what ecologists call the first trophic level. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. In Ecology, trophic dynamics is the system of trophic levels ( Greek trophē, food which describe the position that an organism occupies Botanists also study how plants produce food we can eat and how to increase yields and therefore their work is important in mankind's ability to feed the world and provide food security for future generations, for example through plant breeding. Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of humankind Botanists also study weeds, plants which are considered to be a nuisance in a particular location. WEED (1390 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Spanish format Weeds are a considerable problem in agriculture, and botany provides some of the basic science used to understand how to minimize 'weed' impact in agriculture and native ecosystems. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Ethnobotany is the study of the relationships between plants and people. Ethnobotany ( from " ethnology " - study of culture and " Botany " - study of plants) is the scientific study of the relationships

Gregor Mendel laid the foundations of modern genetics from his studies of plants. Gregor Johann Mendel ( July 20, 1822 &ndash January 6, 1884) was

Fundamental life processes

Plants are convenient organisms in which fundamental life processes (like cell division and protein synthesis for example) can be studied, without the ethical dilemmas of studying animals or humans. Cell division is a process by which a cell, called the parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells. Protein synthesis is the creation of proteins using DNA and' RNA'. The genetic laws of inheritance were discovered in this way by Gregor Mendel, who was studying the way pea shape is inherited. Mendelian inheritance (or Mendelian genetics or Mendelism) is a set of primary tenets relating to the transmission of hereditary characteristics from parent Gregor Johann Mendel ( July 20, 1822 &ndash January 6, 1884) was A pea (inaccurately called a '''sweet pea''' by food distubutors is most commonly the small spherical Seed or the seed-pod of the Legume Pisum What Mendel learned from studying plants has had far reaching benefits outside of botany. Additionally, Barbara McClintock discovered 'jumping genes' by studying maize. Barbara McClintock (June 16 1902 – September 2 1992 the 1983 Nobel Laureate in Physiology or Medicine, was an American scientist and one of the world's most distinguished Transposons are sequences of DNA that can move around to different positions within the Genome of a single cell, a process called transposition Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica These are a few examples that demonstrate how botanical research has an ongoing relevance to the understanding of fundamental biological processes.

Medicine and materials

Many medicinal and recreational drugs, like tetrahydrocannabinol, caffeine, and nicotine come directly from the plant kingdom. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes Caffeine is a bitter white crystalline Xanthine Alkaloid that acts as a Psychoactive Stimulant Drug and a mild Diuretic Nicotine is an Alkaloid found in the Nightshade family of plants ( Solanaceae) which constitutes approximately 0 Others are simple derivatives of botanical natural products; for example aspirin is based on the pain killer salicylic acid which originally came from the bark of willow trees. In Chemistry, a derivative is a compound that is formed from a similar compound or a compound that can be imagined to arise from another compound if one Aspirin, or acetylsalicylic acid (ASA (əˌsɛtɨlsælɨˌsɪlɨk ˈæsɨd is a Salicylate drug, often used as an Analgesic to relieve Salicylic acid (from the Latin word for the willow tree Salix, from whose bark it can be obtained is a Beta hydroxy acid (BHA with the formula Bark, also known as periderm is the outermost layer of stems and Roots of Woody plants such as Trees It overlays the Wood and consists Willows, sallows and osiers form the Genus Salix, around 400 species of Deciduous Trees and Shrubs found primarily ^[2] There may be many novel cures for diseases provided by plants, waiting to be discovered. In Medicine, Biotechnology and Pharmacology, drug discovery is the process by which drugs are discovered and/or designed Popular stimulants like coffee, chocolate, tobacco, and tea also come from plants. Stimulant drugs are Drugs that temporarily increase alertness and awareness CoFFEE is an Open source Software for computer supported collaborative learning (CSCL in a digital classroom Chocolate ( pronounced or /-ˈələt/ comprises a number of raw and processed foods that are produced from the seed of the tropical Cacao tree Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Tea refers to the cured agricultural product of the leaves leaf buds and internodes of Camellia sinensis, which have been prepared and cured for the market Most alcoholic beverages come from fermenting plants such as barley (beer), rice (saki) and grapes (wine). Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Hector Hugh Munro ( December 18, 1870 – November 14, 1916) better known by the Pen name Saki, was a British For the Tokyo University supercomputer see Gravity Pipe. GRAPE, or GRA phics P rogramming E nvironment is Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice

Plants also provide us with many natural materials, such as cotton, wood, paper, linen, vegetable oils, some types of rope, and rubber. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging Linen is a Textile made from the Fibers of the Flax plant Linum usitatissimum. A rope is a length of Fibers twisted or Braided together to improve strength for pulling and Connecting. The production of silk would not be possible without the cultivation of the mulberry plant. Silk is a natural Protein Fiber, some forms of which can be woven into Textiles The best-known type of silk is obtained from cocoons Sugarcane, rapeseed, soy and other plants with a highly-fermentable sugar or oil content have recently been put to use as sources of biofuels, which are important alternatives to fossil fuels, see biodiesel. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of Fossil fuels or mineral fuels are fossil source Fuels that is Hydrocarbons found within the top layer of the Earth’s crust. Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by

Environmental changes

Plants can also help us understand changes in on our environment in many ways.

• Understanding habitat destruction and species extinction is dependent on an accurate and complete catalog of plant systematics and taxonomy. Habitat destruction is the process in which natural Habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species originally present An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming Extinct because it is either few in numbers or threatened by changing environmental or predation Biological systematics is the study of the diversity of Life on the planet Earth both past and present and the relationships among living things through time
• Plant responses to ultraviolet radiation can help us monitor problems like the ozone depletion. Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Ozone depletion describes two distinct but related observations a slow steady decline of about 4 percent per decade in the total amount of Ozone in Earth's
• Analyzing pollen deposited by plants thousands or millions of years ago can help scientists to reconstruct past climates and predict future ones, an essential part of climate change research. Palynology is the science that studies contemporary and fossil Palynomorphs including Pollen, Spores, Dinoflagellate Cysts Acritarchs The geologic time scale is a chronologic schema (or idealized Model) relating Stratigraphy to time that is used by Geologists and other Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences
• Recording and analyzing the timing of plant life cycles are important parts of phenology used in climate-change research. A life cycle is a period involving 1 Generation of an Organism through means of Reproduction, whether through Asexual reproduction or Sexual Phenology is the study of the times of recurring natural phenomena
• Lichens, which are sensitive to atmospheric conditions, have been extensively used as pollution indicators. Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in

In many different ways, plants can act a little like the 'miners canary', an early warning system alerting us to important changes in our environment. The Canary ( Serinus canaria) also called the Island Canary, Atlantic Canary or Common Canary, is a small Passerine Bird In addition to these practical and scientific reasons, plants are extremely valuable as recreation for millions of people who enjoy gardening, horticultural and culinary uses of plants every day. Gardening is the practice of growing Plants for their attractive flowers or foliage and Vegetables or Fruits for consumption Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation A(n herb (ˈhɝb or /ˈɝb/ see pronunciation differences) is a plant that is valued for qualities such as medicinal properties flavor scent or the like

Etymology

From Greek βοτάνη = "pasture, grass, fodder", perhaps via the idea of a livestock keeper needing to know which plants are safe for livestock to eat. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Pasture is land with Herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of Ungulate Livestock as part of a Farm or Ranch. Grass is the common word that generally describes Monocotyledonous green Plants The family Gramineae ( Poaceae) are the "true grasses" and include In Agriculture, fodder or animal feed is any Foodstuff that is used specifically to feed Domesticated Livestock, such as Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food

History

The traditional tools of a botanist.

Early examples of plant taxonomy occur in the Rigveda, that divides plants into Vrska (tree), Osadhi (herbs useful to humans) and Virudha (creepers). The Rigveda ( Sanskrit sa ऋग्वेद ṛgveda, a compound of ṛc "praise verse" and veda "knowledge" which are further subdivided. The Atharvaveda divides plants into eight classes, Visakha (spreading branches), Manjari (leaves with long clusters), Sthambini (bushy plants), Prastanavati (which expands); Ekasrnga (those with monopodial growth), Pratanavati (creeping plants), Amsumati (with many stalks), and Kandini (plants with knotty joints). The Atharvaveda ( Sanskrit: अथर्ववेद atharvaveda, a Tatpurusha compound of {{IAST|atharvan}}, an ancient Rishi The Taittiriya Samhita and classifies the plant kingdom into vrksa, vana and druma (trees), visakha (shrubs with spreading branches), sasa (herbs), amsumali (a spreading or deliquescent plant), vratati (climber), stambini (bushy plant), pratanavati (creeper), and alasala (those spreading on the ground). The Yajurveda ( Sanskrit यजुर्वेदः, a Tatpurusha compound of yajus "sacrificial formula' + veda

Manusmriti proposed a classification of plants in eight major categories. The Manu Smriti ( Sanskrit: मनुस्मृति is a work of Hindu law and ancient Indian society Charaka Samhitā and Sushruta Samhita and the Vaisesikas also present an elaborate taxonomy. The Charaka Samhita Sutra is an ancient Indian Ayurvedic text on Internal medicine written by Charaka. The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on Surgery, attributed to Sushruta, (6th century BCE the "father of Surgery" Vaisheshika, or Vaiśeṣika, (Sanskrit वैशॆषिक) is one of the six Hindu schools of Philosophy (orthodox Vedic systems

Parashara, the author of Vrksayurveda (the science of life of trees), classifies plants into Dvimatrka (Dicotyledons) and Ekamatrka (Monocotyledons). Parāśara "crusher destroyer" is the name of several figures in Hindu tradition a son of Vasishtha, or a son of Shakti and Dicotyledons, or "dicots", is a name for a group of Flowering plants whose Seed typically has two embryonic leaves or Cotyledons There Monocotyledons or monocots are one of two major groups of Flowering plants (angiosperms that are traditionally recognised the other being Dicotyledons These are further classified into Samiganiya (Fabaceae), Puplikagalniya (Rutaceae), Svastikaganiya (Cruciferae), Tripuspaganiya (Cucurbitaceae), Mallikaganiya (Apocynaceae), and Kurcapuspaganiya (Asteraceae). Fabaceae or Leguminosae is a large and economically important family of Flowering plants which is commonly known as the legume family, pea Rutaceae, commonly known as the Rue or Citrus family is a family of Plants usually placed in the order Sapindales. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae, also known as the crucifers, the mustard family or cabbage family is a family (the third lowest primary Cucurbitaceae is a Plant family commonly known as Melons, gourds or cucurbits and includes crops like Cucumbers The family Asteraceae or Compositae (known as the aster, daisy, or sunflower family) is the largest family of Flowering [2]

Among the earliest of botanical works in Europe, written around 300 B.C., are two large treatises by Theophrastus: On the History of Plants (Historia Plantarum) and On the Causes of Plants. Events By place Egypt Pyrrhus, the King of Epirus, is taken as a hostage to Egypt after the Battle of Ipsus Theophrastus ( Greek:; 371 – c 287 BC a Greek native of Eressos in Lesbos, was the successor of Aristotle in the Peripatetic Historia Plantarum is Latin and literally means History of Plants, although in reality it means something closer to "on plants" or "treatise Together these books constitute the most important contribution to botanical science during antiquity and on into the Middle Ages. The Roman medical writer Dioscorides provides important evidence on Greek and Roman knowledge of medicinal plants. Pedanius Dioscorides (Πεδάνιος Διοσκορίδης ca

In ancient China, the recorded listing of different plants and herb concoctions for pharmaceutical purposes spans back to at least the Warring States (481 BC-221 BC). Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The Warring States Period ( also known as the Era of Warring States covers the period from some time in the 5th century BC to the unification of China by the Many Chinese writers over the centuries contributed to the written knowledge of herbal pharmaceutics. There was the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD) written work of the Huangdi Neijing and the famous pharmacologist Zhang Zhongjing of the 2nd century. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. Huangdi Neijing ( also known as The Inner Canon of Huangdi or Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor, is the seminal medical text of Zhang Zhongjing ( formal name Zhang Ji ( 150 - 219) was an Eastern Han physician and one of the most eminent Chinese physicians during There was also the 11th century scientists and statesmen Su Song and Shen Kuo, who compiled treatises on herbal medicine and included the use of mineralogy. Su Song ( style name: Zirong 子容 (1020&ndash1101 AD was a renowned Chinese statesman, astronomer, cartographer, Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals

Important medieval works of plant physiology include the Prthviniraparyam of Udayana, Nyayavindutika of Dharmottara, Saddarsana-samuccaya of Gunaratna, and Upaskara of Sankaramisra. Udayana also known as Udyanacharya lived in 10th century near Darbhanga, Bihar state India. [3]

In 1665, using an early microscope, Robert Hooke discovered cells in cork, and a short time later in living plant tissue. Robert Hooke, FRS (18 July 1635 – 3 March 1703 was an English Natural philosopher and Polymath who played an important role in the The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Cork material is a Prime-subset of generic cork tissue, harvested for commercial use primarily from the Cork Oak tree Quercus The German Leonhart Fuchs, the Swiss Conrad von Gesner, and the British authors Nicholas Culpeper and John Gerard published herbals that gave information on the medicinal uses of plants. The German people (Deutsche are an Ethnic group, in the sense of sharing a common German culture, descent and speaking the German language as Leonhart Fuchs ( 17 January 1501 &ndash 10 May 1566) sometimes spelled Leonhard Fuchs, was a German Physician Konrad Gessner (Conrad Gessner Conrad Geßner Conrad von Gesner Conradus Gesnerus Conrad Gesner 26 March 1516 – 13 December 1565) Nicholas Culpeper ( 18 October 1616 &ndash 1654 in London) was an English botanist, Herbalist, Physician See also John Gerard SJ John Gerard ( Nantwich, 1545 &ndash February 1611/12 in London) was an English

In 1754 Carl von Linné (Carl Linnaeus) divided the plant Kingdom into 25 classes. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for One, the Cryptogamia, included all the plants with concealed reproductive parts (algae, fungi, mosses and liverworts and ferns). ^[3]

Modern botany

A considerable amount of new knowledge today is being generated from studying model plants like Arabidopsis thaliana. A model organism is a Species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological Phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made Arabidopsis thaliana ( A-ra-bi-dóp-sis tha-li-á-na; thale cress, mouse-ear cress or Arabidopsis) is a small This weedy species in the mustard family was one of the first plants to have its genome sequenced. In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby The sequencing of the rice (Oryza sativa) genome and a large international research community have made rice the de facto cereal/grass/monocot model. Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Grass is the common word that generally describes Monocotyledonous green Plants The family Gramineae ( Poaceae) are the "true grasses" and include Monocotyledons or monocots are one of two major groups of Flowering plants (angiosperms that are traditionally recognised the other being Dicotyledons Another grass species, Brachypodium distachyon is also emerging as an experimental model for understanding the genetic, cellular and molecular biology of temperate grasses. Brachypodium distachyon, commonly called purple false brome, is a grass Species native to southern Europe, northern Africa Other commercially-important staple foods like wheat, maize, barley, rye, pearl millet and soybean are also having their genomes sequenced. Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for Rye ( Secale cereale) is a grass grown extensively as a grain and forage crop Pearl millet ( Pennisetum glaucum) is the most widely grown type of Millet. Some of these are challenging to sequence because they have more than two haploid (n) sets of chromosomes, a condition known as polyploidy, common in the plant kingdom. "Haplo" redirects here For the fictional character see The Death Gate Cycle. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. Polyploidy occurs in cells and Organisms when there are more than two homologous sets of Chromosomes. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii (a single-celled, green alga) is another plant model organism that has been extensively studied and provided important insights into cell biology. Chlamydomonas reinhardtii is a motile single celled Green alga about 10 Micrometres in diameter that swims with two Flagella. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms

In 1998 the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group published a phylogeny of flowering plants based on an analysis of DNA sequences from most families of flowering plants. The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group, or APG, refers to two international groups of systematic botanists who came together to try to establish a consensus view of the Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known As a result of this work, major questions such as which families represent the earliest branches in the genealogy of angiosperms are now understood. The flowering plants or angiosperms ( Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta) are the most widespread group Investigating how plant species are related to each other allows botanists to better understand the process of evolution in plants.

Subdisciplines of Botany

• Agronomy—Application of plant science to crop production
• Bryology—Mosses, liverworts, and hornworts
• Economic botany—The place of plants in economics
• Ethnobotany—Relationship between humans and plants
• Forestry—Forest management and related studies
• Horticulture—Cultivated plants
• Paleobotany—Fossil plants
• Palynology—Pollen and spores
• Phycology - Algae
• Phytochemistry—Plant secondary chemistry and chemical processes
• Phytopathology—Plant diseases
• Plant anatomy—Cell and tissue structure
• Plant ecology—Role of plants in the environment
• Plant genetics—Genetic inheritance in plants
• Plant morphology—Structure and life cycles
• Plant physiology—Life functions of plants
• Plant systematics—Classification and naming of plants

Notable Botanists

• Luther Burbank (1849-1926), American botanist, horticulturist, and a pioneer in agricultural science. Agronomy is the science and technology of using plants for food fuel feed and fiber Bryology is the branch of Botany concerned with the scientific study of Bryophytes ( Mosses Liverworts and Hornworts. Ethnobotany ( from " ethnology " - study of culture and " Botany " - study of plants) is the scientific study of the relationships Forestry is the Art and Science of managing forests tree Plantations and related Natural resources. Horticulture is the art and science of plant cultivation Horticulturists (or horticuluralists) work and conduct research in the fields of Plant propagation Paleobotany, also spelled as palaeobotany (from the Greek words paleon = old and " Botany " study of plants is the branch of Palynology is the science that studies contemporary and fossil Palynomorphs including Pollen, Spores, Dinoflagellate Cysts Acritarchs Phycology (from Greek grc φύκος phykos, "seaweed" and grc -λογία -logia) or algology (from Latin Phytochemistry is in the strict sense of the word the study of Phytochemicals These are chemicals derived from Plants In a narrower sense the terms are often used Plant anatomy or phytotomy is the general term for the study of the internal structure of plants Plant morphology (or phytomorphology) is the general term for the study of the morphology (physical form and external structure of Plants This is usually Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology Plant taxonomy is the science that finds describes classifies identifies and names Plants It thus is one of the main branches of taxonomy. Luther Burbank ( March 7 1849 – April 11, 1926) was an American botanist, Horticulturist and a pioneer in Agricultural
• Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911), English botanist and explorer. Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, OM, GCSI, MD, FRS (30 June 1817 – 10 December 1911 was an English Botanist and Explorer Second winner of Darwin Medal. The Darwin Medal is given by the Royal Society every even year for "work of acknowledged distinction in the broad area of Biology in which Charles Darwin
• Thomas Henry Huxley (1825–1895), English biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. Thomas Henry Huxley PC FRS (4 May 1825 – 29 June 1895 was an English Biologist, known as "Darwin's Bulldog" for his advocacy Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Third winner of Darwin Medal. The Darwin Medal is given by the Royal Society every even year for "work of acknowledged distinction in the broad area of Biology in which Charles Darwin
• Gregor Johann Mendel (1822-1884), Augustinian priest and scientist, and is often called the father of genetics for his study of the inheritance of traits in pea plants. Gregor Johann Mendel ( July 20, 1822 &ndash January 6, 1884) was Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is
• Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778), Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of Binomial nomenclature. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of the fathers of modern ecology.
• Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

See also

Crantz's Classis cruciformium. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer Heinrich Johann Nepomuk von Crantz ( Roodt, Luxemburg, November 25, 1722 &ndash January 18, 1797, Judenburg, . . , 1769

• History of plant systematics
• History of phycology
• Botanical garden and List of botanical gardens
• Dendrochronology
• List of domesticated plants
• Edible Flowers
• Flowers and List of flowers
• Forestry
• Herbs
• List of botanical journals
• List of botanists
• List of botanists by author abbreviation
• List of systems of plant taxonomy
• List of publications in biology
• Paleobotany
• Palynology
• Plant anatomy
• Seeds
• Plant physiology
• Plant community
• Plant sexuality
• Soil science

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• Trees
• Vegetation
• Weed Science

References

• U. S. Geological Survey. National Biological Information Infrastructure: Botany

Further reading

Popular science style books on Botany

• Attenborough, David The Private Life of Plants, ISBN 0-563-37023-8
• Bellamy, D Bellamy on Botany, ISBN 0-563-10666-2 an accessible and short introduction to various botanical subjects
• Capon, B: Botany for Gardeners ISBN 0-88192-655-8
• Cohen, J. Sir David Frederick Attenborough OM, CH, CVO, CBE, FRS (born 8 May 1926 in London, England For the unrelated book with a similar title by Peter Tompkins and Christopher Bird see The Secret Life of Plants. David J Bellamy OBE (born 18 January 1933) is an English Botanist, Author, broadcaster, and environmental How many people can the earth support? W. W. Norton 1995 ISBN 0-393-31495-2
• Halle, Francis. In praise of plants ISBN 0-88192-550-0. English translation of a poetic advocacy of plants.
• King, J. Reaching for the sun: How plants work ISBN 0-521-58738-7. A fluent introduction to how plants work.
• Pakenham, T: Remarkable Trees of the World (2002) ISBN 0-297-84300-1
• Pakenham, T: Meetings with Remarkable Trees (1996) ISBN 0-297-83255-7
• Pollan, M The Botany of Desire: A Plant's-eye View of the World Bloomsbury ISBN 0-7475-6300-4 Account of the co-evolution of plants and humans
• Thomas, B. Thomas Francis Dermot Pakenham 8th Earl of Longford, born 14 August 1933 known simply as Thomas Pakenham, is an Anglo-Irish historian and Arborist who In a broad sense biological co-evolution is "the change of a biological object triggered by the change of a related object" A. : The evolution of plants and flowers St Martin's Press 1981 ISBN 0-312-27271-5
• Walker, D. Energy, Plants and Man ISBN 1-870232-05-4 A presentation of the basic concepts of photosynthesis

Academic and Scientific books on Botany

• Buchanan, B. B. , Gruissem, W & Jones, R. L. (2000) Biochemistry & molecular biology of plants. American Society of Plant Physiologists ISBN 0-943088-39-9
• Crawford, R. M. M. (1989). Studies in plant survival. Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-01475-X
• Crawley, M. J. (1997). Plant ecology. Blackwell Scientific. ISBN 0-632-03639-7
• Ennos, R and Sheffield, E Plant life, Blackwell Science, ISBN 0-86542-737-2 Introduction to plant biodiversity
• Everitt, J. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. H. ; Lonard, R. L. , Little, C. R. (2007). Weeds in South Texas and Northern Mexico. Lubbock: Texas Tech University Press.   ISBN 0-89672-614-2
• Fitter, A & Hay, R Environmental physiology of plants 3rd edition Sept 2001 Harcourt Publishers, Academic Press ISBN 0-12-257766-3
• Lambers, H. , Chapin, F. S. III and Pons, T. L. 1998. Plant Physiological Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. ISBN 0-387-98326-0; 2nd compltely revised edition to appear in 2008.
• Lawlor, D. W. (2000) Photosynthesis BIOS ISBN 1-85996-157-6
• Matthews, R. E. F. Fundamentals of plant virology Academic Press,1992.
• Mauseth, J. D. : Botany : an introduction to plant biology. Jones and Bartlett Publishers, ISBN 0-7637-2134-4, A first year undergraduate level textbook
• Morton, A. G. (1981). History of Botanical Science. Academic Press, London. ISBN 0-12-508380-7 (hardback) ISBN 0-12-508382-3 (paperback)
• Raven, P. H, Evert R. H and Eichhorn, S. E: Biology of Plants, Freeman. ISBN 1-57259-041-6, A first year undergraduate level textbook
• Richards, P. W. (1996). The tropical rainforest. 2nd ed. C. U. P. (Pbk) ISBN 0-521-42194-2 £32. 50
• Ridge, I. (2002) Plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-925548-2
• Salisbury, FB and Ross, CW: Plant physiology Wadsworth publishing company ISBN 0-534-15162-0
• Stace, C. Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of Botany concerned with the function or Physiology, of Plants Closely related fields include Plant morphology A. A new flora of the British Isles. In Botany, flora ( Plural: floras or florae has two meanings The first meaning flora of an area or of time period, refers to all 2nd ed. C. U. P. ,1997. ISBN 0-521-58935-5
• Strange, R. L. Introduction to plant pathology. Wiley-VCH, 2003. ISBN 0-470-84973-8
• Taiz, L. & Zeiger, E. (1998). Plant physiology. 3rd ed. August 2002 Sinauer Associates. ISBN 0-87893-823-0
• Walter, H. (1985). Vegetation of the earth. Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants 3rd rev. ed. Springer.
• Willis, K (2002) The evolution of plants Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-850065-3 £22-99

External links

• Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation
• plant growth and the plant cell from Kimball's Biology Pages
• Botanical Society of America: What is Botany?
• Science and Plants for Schools
• Teaching Documents about Botany Teaching documents, lecture notes and tutorials online: an annotated link directory.
• American society of plant biologists APSB
• Why study Plants? Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge
• Botany Photo of the Day

Flora and other plant catalogs or databases

• The Virtual Library of Botany
• High quality pictures of plants and information about them from Catholic University of Leuven
• Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 1790-1856
• The Trees Of Great Britain and Ireland, by Henry John Elwes & Augustine Henry, 1906-1913
• Botanik-Datenbank (ger. )
• Plant Directory (ger. )
• USDA plant database
• The Linnean Society of London
• Native Plant Information Network