Insulin crystals

Biotechnology is technology based on biology, especially when used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Food science is a discipline concerned with all technical aspects of Food, beginning with Harvesting or slaughtering, and ending with its Cooking Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity defines biotechnology as:^[1]

Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The Convention on Biological Diversity, known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international Treaty that was adopted in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992

Biotechnology is often used to refer to genetic engineering technology of the 21st century, however the term encompasses a wider range and history of procedures for modifying biological organisms according to the needs of humanity, going back to the initial modifications of native plants into improved food crops through artificial selection and hybridization. Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct Artificial selection is the intentional breeding for certain traits or combinations of traits over others and is synonymous with " Selective breeding " In Biology, hybrid has two meanings The first meaning is the result of interbreeding between two animals or plants of different taxa. Bioengineering is the science upon which all Biotechnological applications are based. Bioengineering (also known as Biological Engineering is the application of Engineering principles to address challenges in the fields of Biology and Medicine With the development of new approaches and modern techniques, traditional biotechnology industries are also acquiring new horizons enabling them to improve the quality of their products and increase the productivity of their systems.

Before 1971, the term, biotechnology, was primarily used in the food processing and agriculture industries. Food processing is the set of methods and techniques used to transform raw Ingredients into Food or to transform food into other forms for consumption by Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Since the 1970s, it began to be used by the Western scientific establishment to refer to laboratory-based techniques being developed in biological research, such as recombinant DNA or tissue culture-based processes, or horizontal gene transfer in living plants, using vectors such as the Agrobacterium bacteria to transfer DNA into a host organism. Recombinant DNA is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands thereby combining DNA sequences Tissue culture is the growth of tissues and/or cells separate from the organism Agrobacterium is a Genus of Gram-negative Bacteria that uses Horizontal gene transfer to cause Tumors in plants In fact, the term should be used in a much broader sense to describe the whole range of methods, both ancient and modern, used to manipulate organic materials to reach the demands of food production. So the term could be defined as, "The application of indigenous and/or scientific knowledge to the management of (parts of) microorganisms, or of cells and tissues of higher organisms, so that these supply goods and services of use to the food industry and its consumers. ^[2]

Biotechnology combines disciplines like genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, embryology and cell biology, which are in turn linked to practical disciplines like chemical engineering, information technology, and robotics. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Embryology (from Greek grc ἔμβρυον embryon, "unborn embryo" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the development See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the Chemical engineering is the branch of Engineering that deals with the application of Physical science (e Information technology ( IT) as defined by the Information Technology Association of America (ITAA is "the study design development implementation support See also Robot Robotics is the science and technology of Robots and their design manufacture and application Patho-biotechnology describes the exploitation of pathogens or pathogen derived compounds for beneficial effect. The term Patho-biotechnology, coined by Dr Roy Sleator and Prof Colin Hill ( University College Cork, Ireland) describes the exploitation of pathogenic stress survival

History

Brewing was an early application of biotechnology

Main article: History of Biotechnology

The most practical use of biotechnology, which is still present today, is the cultivation of plants to produce food suitable to humans. Brewing is the production of Alcoholic beverage and Alcohol fuel through fermentation. Biotechnology is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the processing of materials by biological agents to provide goods and services Agriculture has been theorized to have become the dominant way of producing food since the Neolithic Revolution. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture The Neolithic Revolution was the first Agricultural revolution &mdashthe transition from hunting and gathering communities and bands to Agriculture and The processes and methods of agriculture have been refined by other mechanical and biological sciences since its inception. Through early biotechnology farmers were able to select the best suited and highest-yield crops to produce enough food to support a growing population. Other uses of biotechnology were required as crops and fields became increasingly large and difficult to maintain. Specific organisms and organism byproducts were used to fertilize, restore nitrogen, and control pests. For soil improvement see Fertilization (soil. Nitrogen fixation is the process by which Nitrogen is taken from its natural relatively inert molecular form (N2 in the atmosphere and converted into A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. Throughout the use of agriculture farmers have inadvertently altered the genetics of their crops through introducing them to new environments and breeding them with other plants--one of the first forms of biotechnology. Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of humankind Cultures such as those in Mesopotamia, Egypt, and India developed the process of brewing beer. Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Brewing is the production of Alcoholic beverage and Alcohol fuel through fermentation. It is still done by the same basic method of using malted grains (containing enzymes) to convert starch from grains into sugar and then adding specific yeasts to produce beer. In this process the carbohydrates in the grains were broken down into alcohols such as ethanol. Ancient Indians also used the juices of the plant Ephedra Vulgaris and used to call it Soma. Soma ( Sanskrit: सोम) or Haoma ( Avestan) from Proto-Indo-Iranian * sauma-, was a ritual drink of importance Later other cultures produced the process of Lactic acid fermentation which allowed the fermentation and preservation of other forms of food. Lactic acid fermentation is a biological process by which sugars such as Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose, are converted into cellular energy and the metabolic Fermentation was also used in this time period to produce leavened bread. Although the process of fermentation was not fully understood until Louis Pasteur’s work in 1857, it is still the first use of biotechnology to convert a food source into another form. Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and

Combinations of plants and other organisms were used as medications in many early civilizations. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease Since as early as 200 BC, people began to use disabled or minute amounts of infectious agents to immunize themselves against infections. These and similar processes have been refined in modern medicine and have led to many developments such as antibiotics, vaccines, and other methods of fighting sickness. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease

In the early twentieth century scientists gained a greater understanding of microbiology and explored ways of manufacturing specific products. Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία In 1917, Chaim Weizmann first used a pure microbiological culture in an industrial process, that of manufacturing corn starch using Clostridium acetobutylicum to produce acetone, which the United Kingdom desperately needed to manufacture explosives during World War I. Chaim Azriel Weizmann ( Hebrew: חיים עזריאל ויצמן – November 27, 1874 &ndash November 9, 1952) was a Zionist Cornstarch, or cornflour, is the Starch of the Maize grain commonly known as Corn. Clostridium acetobutylicum, included in the genus Clostridium, is a commercially valuable Bacterium. Acetone (also known as propanone, dimethyl ketone, 2-propanone, propan-2-one and β-ketopropane) is a colorless mobile flammable The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located An explosive material is a material that either is chemically or otherwise Energetically unstable or produces a sudden expansion of the material usually accompanied World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All ^[3]

The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun on June 16, 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically-modified microorganism could be patented in the case of Diamond v. Chakrabarty. Events 1487 - Battle of Stoke Field, the last dying breath of the Wars of the Roses. Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. Genetic engineering, Recombinant DNA technology, genetic modification/manipulation (GM and gene splicing are terms that apply to the direct A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually A patent is a set of Exclusive rights granted by a State to an inventor or his assignee for a fixed period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an Diamond v Chakrabarty,, was a United States Supreme Court case dealing with whether genetically modified micro-organisms can be Patented ^[4] Indian-born Ananda Chakrabarty, working for General Electric, had developed a bacterium (derived from the Pseudomonas genus) capable of breaking down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills. Pseudomonas is a Genus of gamma Proteobacteria, belonging to the larger family of Pseudomonads Recently 16S rRNA sequence

Revenue in the industry is expected to grow by 12. 9% in 2008. Another factor influencing the biotechnology sector's success is improved intellectual property rights legislation -- and enforcement -- worldwide, as well as strengthened demand for medical and pharmaceutical products to cope with an ageing, and ailing, U. S. population ^[5].

Rising demand for biofuels is expected to be good news for the biotechnology sector, with the Department of Energy estimating ethanol usage could reduce U. S. petroleum-derived fuel consumption by up to 30% by 2030. The biotechnology sector has allowed the U. S. farming industry to rapidly increase its supply of corn and soybeans -- the main inputs into biofuels -- by developing genetically-modified seeds which are resistant to pests and drought. By boosting farm productivity, biotechnology plays a crucial role in ensuring that biofuel production targets are met^[6].

Applications

Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care (medical), crop production and agriculture, non food (industrial) uses of crops and other products (e. g. biodegradable plastics, vegetable oil, biofuels), and environmental uses. Biodegradable plastics are Plastics that will Decompose in the natural environment.

For example, one application of biotechnology is the directed use of organisms for the manufacture of organic products (examples include beer and milk products). Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Milk is an opaque white liquid produced by the Mammary glands of female Mammals (including Monotremes. Another example is using naturally present bacteria by the mining industry in bioleaching. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Bioleaching is the extraction of specific Metals from their Ores through the use of bacteria. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, clean up sites contaminated by industrial activities (bioremediation), and also to produce biological weapons. Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered Biological warfare (BW — known as a germ warfare, biological weapons and bioweaponry — is the use of any Pathogen ( Bacterium

A series of derived terms have been coined to identify several branches of biotechnology, for example:

• Red biotechnology is applied to medical processes. The term Biopharmacology describes a field of research closely related to Pharmacokinetics, sometimes called biopharmacy Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Some examples are the designing of organisms to produce antibiotics, and the engineering of genetic cures through genomic manipulation. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby

A rose plant that began as cells grown in a tissue culture

• Green biotechnology is biotechnology applied to agricultural processes. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture An example would be the selection and domestication of plants via micropropagation. Micropropagation is the practice of rapidly multiplying stock plant material to produce a large number of progeny plants using modern Plant tissue culture methods Another example is the designing of transgenic plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain agricultural chemicals. Transgenic plants possess a Gene or genes that have been transferred from a different Species. One hope is that green biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, thereby eliminating the need for external application of pesticides. A pesticide is a substance or mixture of substances used to kill a pest. An example of this would be Bt corn. Transgenic maize (corn has been deliberately genetically modified to have agronomically desirable traits Whether or not green biotechnology products such as this are ultimately more environmentally friendly is a topic of considerable debate.

• White biotechnology, also known as industrial biotechnology, is biotechnology applied to industrial processes. Industrial biotechnology (known mainly in Europe as white biotechnology) is the application of biotechnology for industrial purposes including manufacturing alternative energy For other uses of this term see Industry (disambiguation An industry (from Latin industrius, "diligent industrious" An example is the designing of an organism to produce a useful chemical. Another example is the using of enzymes as industrial catalysts to either produce valuable chemicals or destroy hazardous/polluting chemicals. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst White biotechnology tends to consume less in resources than traditional processes used to produce industrial goods.

• Blue biotechnology is a term that has been used to describe the marine and aquatic applications of biotechnology, but its use is relatively rare.

• The investments and economic output of all of these types of applied biotechnologies form what has been described as the bioeconomy. Bioeconomy refers to all economic activity derived from scientific and research activity focused on understanding mechanisms and processes at the genetic and molecular levels and its application

• Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which addresses biological problems using computational techniques, and makes the rapid organization and analysis of biological data possible. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the field of molecular biology The field may also be referred to as computational biology, and can be defined as, "conceptualizing biology in terms of molecules and then applying informatics techniques to understand and organize the information associated with these molecules, on a large scale. "^[7] Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, such as functional genomics, structural genomics, and proteomics, and forms a key component in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical sector. Functional genomics is a field of Molecular biology that attempts to make use of the vast wealth of data produced by genomic projects (such as genome sequencing projects Structural genomics consists in the determination of the three dimensional structure of all Proteins of a given organism by experimental methods such as X-ray crystallography Proteomics is the large-scale study of Proteins particularly their structures and functions.

Medicine

In medicine, modern biotechnology finds promising applications in such areas as

• pharmacogenomics;
• drug production;
• genetic testing; and
• gene therapy. Pharmacogenomics is the branch of Pharmacology which deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating Gene expression Gene therapy is the insertion of Genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat a Disease, and Hereditary diseases in which a

Pharmacogenomics

DNA Microarray chip -- Some can do as many as a million blood tests at once

Main article: Pharmacogenomics

Pharmacogenomics is the study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs. For terminology see glossary below A DNA microarray is a High-throughput technology used in Molecular biology and in Pharmacogenomics is the branch of Pharmacology which deals with the influence of genetic variation on drug response in patients by correlating Gene expression It is a coined word derived from the words “pharmacology” and “genomics”. Pharmacology (from Greek grc φάρμακον pharmakon, "drug" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of how Drugs It is hence the study of the relationship between pharmaceuticals and genetics. The vision of pharmacogenomics is to be able to design and produce drugs that are adapted to each person’s genetic makeup. ^[8]

Pharmacogenomics results in the following benefits:^[8]

1. Development of tailor-made medicines. Using pharmacogenomics, pharmaceutical companies can create drugs based on the proteins, enzymes and RNA molecules that are associated with specific genes and diseases. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Ribonucleic acid ( RNA) is a Nucleic acid that consists of a long chain of Nucleotide units These tailor-made drugs promise not only to maximize therapeutic effects but also to decrease damage to nearby healthy cells.

2. More accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages. Knowing a patient’s genetics will enable doctors to determine how well his/ her body can process and metabolize a medicine. This will maximize the value of the medicine and decrease the likelihood of overdose.

3. Improvements in the drug discovery and approval process. The discovery of potential therapies will be made easier using genome targets. Genes have been associated with numerous diseases and disorders. With modern biotechnology, these genes can be used as targets for the development of effective new therapies, which could significantly shorten the drug discovery process.

4. Better vaccines. Safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering. These vaccines will elicit the immune response without the attendant risks of infection. They will be inexpensive, stable, easy to store, and capable of being engineered to carry several strains of pathogen at once.

Pharmaceutical products

Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlighting the threefold symmetry, the zinc ions holding it together, and the histidine residues involved in zinc binding. Symmetry generally conveys two primary meanings The first is an imprecise sense of harmonious or aesthetically-pleasing proportionality and balance such that it reflects beauty or Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Histidine (abbreviated as His or H) is one of the 20 standard Amino acids present in Proteins In the Nutritional sense in

Most traditional pharmaceutical drugs are relatively simple molecules that have been found primarily through trial and error to treat the symptoms of a disease or illness. Biopharmaceuticals are large biological molecules known as proteins and these usually target the underlying mechanisms and pathways of a malady (but not always, as is the case with using insulin to treat type 1 diabetes mellitus, as that treatment merely addresses the symptoms of the disease, not the underlying cause which is autoimmunity); it is a relatively young industry. The term Biopharmacology describes a field of research closely related to Pharmacokinetics, sometimes called biopharmacy Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance Diabetes mellitus type 1 (Type 1 diabetes Type I diabetes T1D T1DM IDDM juvenile diabetes is a form of Diabetes mellitus. Autoimmunity is the failure of an organism to recognize its own constituent parts as self, which results in an immune response against its own cells and tissues They can deal with targets in humans that may not be accessible with traditional medicines. A patient typically is dosed with a small molecule via a tablet while a large molecule is typically injected.

Small molecules are manufactured by chemistry but larger molecules are created by living cells such as those found in the human body: for example, bacteria cells, yeast cells, animal or plant cells.

Modern biotechnology is often associated with the use of genetically altered microorganisms such as E. coli or yeast for the production of substances like synthetic insulin or antibiotics. A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa It can also refer to transgenic animals or transgenic plants, such as Bt corn. This article is about organisms which have been genetically modified Transgenic plants possess a Gene or genes that have been transferred from a different Species. Transgenic maize (corn has been deliberately genetically modified to have agronomically desirable traits Genetically altered mammalian cells, such as Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells, are also used to manufacture certain pharmaceuticals. Chinese Hamster Ovary cells ( CHO cells are a Cell line derived from Chinese Hamster Ovary cells Another promising new biotechnology application is the development of plant-made pharmaceuticals. For pharming in Internet, see Pharming. For pharming in drug abuse see Pharming parties.

Biotechnology is also commonly associated with landmark breakthroughs in new medical therapies to treat hepatitis B, hepatitis C, cancers, arthritis, haemophilia, bone fractures, multiple sclerosis, and cardiovascular disorders. Hepatitis C is a blood-borne infectious disease that is caused by the Hepatitis C virus ( HCV) affecting the Liver. Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Arthritis (from Greek arthro-, joint + -itis, inflammation plural arthritides is a group of conditions involving damage to the Joints of the body Haemophilia (also spelled as hemophilia A bone fracture (sometimes abbreviated # or Fx or Fx) is a medical condition in which a Bone is cracked or broken Multiple sclerosis (abbreviated MS also known as disseminated sclerosis or encephalomyelitis disseminata) is an autoimmune condition in which the This is an article about the rock music band "Circulatory System" The biotechnology industry has also been instrumental in developing molecular diagnostic devices than can be used to define the target patient population for a given biopharmaceutical. Herceptin, for example, was the first drug approved for use with a matching diagnostic test and is used to treat breast cancer in women whose cancer cells express the protein HER2. Trastuzumab (more commonly known under the Trade HER2/neu (also known as ErbB-2) stands for "Human Epidermal growth factor Receptor 2" and is a protein giving higher aggressiveness in Breast cancers It is a

Modern biotechnology can be used to manufacture existing medicines relatively easily and cheaply. The first genetically engineered products were medicines designed to treat human diseases. To cite one example, in 1978 Genentech developed synthetic humanized insulin by joining its gene with a plasmid vector inserted into the bacterium Escherichia coli. Genentech Inc ( a composite of Genetic Engineering Technology Inc Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance A plasmid is an extra-chromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA which is capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA Insulin, widely used for the treatment of diabetes, was previously extracted from the pancreas of abattoir animals (cattle and/or pigs). The resulting genetically engineered bacterium enabled the production of vast quantities of synthetic human insulin at relatively low cost^[9], although the cost savings was used to increase profits for manufacturers, not passed on to consumers or their healthcare providers. According to a 2003 study undertaken by the International Diabetes Federation (IDF) on the access to and availability of insulin in its member countries, synthetic 'human' insulin is considerably more expensive in most countries where both synthetic 'human' and animal insulin are commercially available: e. g. within European countries the average price of synthetic 'human' insulin was twice as high as the price of pork insulin^[10]. Yet in its position statement, the IDF writes that "there is no overwhelming evidence to prefer one species of insulin over another" and "[modern, highly-purified] animal insulins remain a perfectly acceptable alternative^[11].

Modern biotechnology has evolved, making it possible to produce more easily and relatively cheaply human growth hormone, clotting factors for hemophiliacs, fertility drugs, erythropoietin and other drugs. Growth hormone ( GH) is a Peptide hormone that stimulates growth and cell reproduction in humans and other animals Coagulation is a complex process by which Blood forms Clots It is an important part of Hemostasis (the cessation of blood loss from a damaged vessel whereby Haemophilia (also spelled as hemophilia Fertility medication is medication that enhances Fertility. For women fertility medication is used to stimulate follicle development of the Ovary. Erythropoietin (ɨˌɹɪθɹoʊˈpɔɪɨtɨn /ɨˌɹɪθɹoʊˈpɔɪtən/ or /ɨˌɹiːθɹoʊ-/ or EPO is a Glycoprotein Hormone that controls ^[12] Most drugs today are based on about 500 molecular targets. Genomic knowledge of the genes involved in diseases, disease pathways, and drug-response sites are expected to lead to the discovery of thousands more new targets. ^[12]

Genetic testing

Gel electrophoresis

Genetic testing involves the direct examination of the DNA molecule itself. Genetic testing allows the genetic Diagnosis of vulnerabilities to inherited Diseases, and can also be used to determine a person's Ancestry. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known A scientist scans a patient’s DNA sample for mutated sequences.

There are two major types of gene tests. In the first type, a researcher may design short pieces of DNA (“probes”) whose sequences are complementary to the mutated sequences. These probes will seek their complement among the base pairs of an individual’s genome. If the mutated sequence is present in the patient’s genome, the probe will bind to it and flag the mutation. In the second type, a researcher may conduct the gene test by comparing the sequence of DNA bases in a patient’s gene to disease in healthy individuals or their progeny.

Genetic testing is now used for:

• Determining sex
• Carrier screening, or the identification of unaffected individuals who carry one copy of a gene for a disease that requires two copies for the disease to manifest
• Prenatal diagnostic screening
• Newborn screening
• Presymptomatic testing for predicting adult-onset disorders
• Presymptomatic testing for estimating the risk of developing adult-onset cancers
• Confirmational diagnosis of symptomatic individuals
• Forensic/identity testing

Some genetic tests are already available, although most of them are used in developed countries. The tests currently available can detect mutations associated with rare genetic disorders like cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, and Huntington’s disease. Cystic fibrosis (also known as CF, mucoviscoidosis, or mucoviscidosis) is a hereditary disease affecting the exocrine (mucus glands of the lungs Sickle-cell disease or sickle-cell anaemia (or anemia) is a Blood disorder characterized by Red blood cells that assume an abnormal rigid Huntington's disease, also called Huntington's chorea, chorea major, or HD, is a genetic neurological disorder characterized after Recently, tests have been developed to detect mutation for a handful of more complex conditions such as breast, ovarian, and colon cancers. However, gene tests may not detect every mutation associated with a particular condition because many are as yet undiscovered, and the ones they do detect may present different risks to different people and populations. ^[12]

Controversial questions

The bacterium E. coli is routinely genetically engineered. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have

Several issues have been raised regarding the use of genetic testing:

1. Absence of cure. There is still a lack of effective treatment or preventive measures for many diseases and conditions now being diagnosed or predicted using gene tests. Thus, revealing information about risk of a future disease that has no existing cure presents an ethical dilemma for medical practitioners.

2. Ownership and control of genetic information. Who will own and control genetic information, or information about genes, gene products, or inherited characteristics derived from an individual or a group of people like indigenous communities? At the macro level, there is a possibility of a genetic divide, with developing countries that do not have access to medical applications of biotechnology being deprived of benefits accruing from products derived from genes obtained from their own people. Moreover, genetic information can pose a risk for minority population groups as it can lead to group stigmatization.

At the individual level, the absence of privacy and anti-discrimination legal protections in most countries can lead to discrimination in employment or insurance or other misuse of personal genetic information. This raises questions such as whether genetic privacy is different from medical privacy. ^[13]

3. Reproductive issues. These include the use of genetic information in reproductive decision-making and the possibility of genetically altering reproductive cells that may be passed on to future generations. For example, germline therapy forever changes the genetic make-up of an individual’s descendants. Thus, any error in technology or judgment may have far-reaching consequences. Ethical issues like designer babies and human cloning have also given rise to controversies between and among scientists and bioethicists, especially in the light of past abuses with eugenics. Eugenics is a social Philosophy which advocates the improvement of Human Hereditary traits through various forms of intervention

4. Clinical issues. These center on the capabilities and limitations of doctors and other health-service providers, people identified with genetic conditions, and the general public in dealing with genetic information.

5. Effects on social institutions. Genetic tests reveal information about individuals and their families. Thus, test results can affect the dynamics within social institutions, particularly the family.

6. Conceptual and philosophical implications regarding human responsibility, free will vis-à-vis genetic determinism, and the concepts of health and disease.

Gene therapy

Main article: Gene therapy

Gene therapy using an Adenovirus vector. Gene therapy is the insertion of Genes into an individual's cells and tissues to treat a Disease, and Hereditary diseases in which a Adenoviruses are medium-sized (90–100 nm) Nonenveloped (naked Icosahedral viruses composed of a nucleocapsid and a double-stranded linear DNA A new gene is inserted into an adenovirus vector, which is used to introduce the modified DNA into a human cell. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known If the treatment is successful, the new gene will make a functional protein. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl

Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity. It can be used to target somatic (i. e. , body) or germ (i. e. , egg and sperm) cells. In somatic gene therapy, the genome of the recipient is changed, but this change is not passed along to the next generation. In contrast, in germline gene therapy, the egg and sperm cells of the parents are changed for the purpose of passing on the changes to their offspring.

There are basically two ways of implementing a gene therapy treatment:

1. Ex vivo, which means “outside the body” – Cells from the patient’s blood or bone marrow are removed and grown in the laboratory. Bone marrow is the flexible tissue found in the hollow interior of Bones In adults marrow in large bones produces new Blood cells It constitutes 4% of They are then exposed to a virus carrying the desired gene. The virus enters the cells, and the desired gene becomes part of the DNA of the cells. The cells are allowed to grow in the laboratory before being returned to the patient by injection into a vein.

2. In vivo, which means “inside the body” – No cells are removed from the patient’s body. Instead, vectors are used to deliver the desired gene to cells in the patient’s body.

Currently, the use of gene therapy is limited. Somatic gene therapy is primarily at the experimental stage. Germline therapy is the subject of much discussion but it is not being actively investigated in larger animals and human beings.

As of June 2001, more than 500 clinical gene-therapy trials involving about 3,500 patients have been identified worldwide. Around 78% of these are in the United States, with Europe having 18%. These trials focus on various types of cancer, although other multigenic diseases are being studied as well. Recently, two children born with severe combined immunodeficiency disorder (“SCID”) were reported to have been cured after being given genetically engineered cells. Severe combined immunodeficiency ( SCID) or Boy in the Bubble Syndrome is a genetic disorder in which both "arms" ( B cells and T cells

Gene therapy faces many obstacles before it can become a practical approach for treating disease. ^[14] At least four of these obstacles are as follows:

1. Gene delivery tools. Genes are inserted into the body using gene carriers called vectors. The most common vectors now are viruses, which have evolved a way of encapsulating and delivering their genes to human cells in a pathogenic manner. Scientists manipulate the genome of the virus by removing the disease-causing genes and inserting the therapeutic genes. However, while viruses are effective, they can introduce problems like toxicity, immune and inflammatory responses, and gene control and targeting issues.

2. Limited knowledge of the functions of genes. Scientists currently know the functions of only a few genes. Hence, gene therapy can address only some genes that cause a particular disease. Worse, it is not known exactly whether genes have more than one function, which creates uncertainty as to whether replacing such genes is indeed desirable.

3. Multigene disorders and effect of environment. Most genetic disorders involve more than one gene. Moreover, most diseases involve the interaction of several genes and the environment. For example, many people with cancer not only inherit the disease gene for the disorder, but may have also failed to inherit specific tumor suppressor genes. Diet, exercise, smoking and other environmental factors may have also contributed to their disease.

4. High costs. Since gene therapy is relatively new and at an experimental stage, it is an expensive treatment to undertake. This explains why current studies are focused on illnesses commonly found in developed countries, where more people can afford to pay for treatment. It may take decades before developing countries can take advantage of this technology.

Human Genome Project

DNA Replication image from the Human Genome Project (HGP)

The Human Genome Project is an initiative of the U. DNA replication is the process of copying a double-stranded DNA molecule to form two double-stranded molecules The Human Genome Project (HGP was an international Scientific research project with a primary goal to determine the sequence of chemical base pairs which make up DNA S. Department of Energy (“DOE”) that aims to generate a high-quality reference sequence for the entire human genome and identify all the human genes.

The DOE and its predecessor agencies were assigned by the U. S. Congress to develop new energy resources and technologies and to pursue a deeper understanding of potential health and environmental risks posed by their production and use. In 1986, the DOE announced its Human Genome Initiative. Shortly thereafter, the DOE and National Institutes of Health developed a plan for a joint Human Genome Project (“HGP”), which officially began in 1990.

The HGP was originally planned to last 15 years. However, rapid technological advances and worldwide participation accelerated the completion date to 2003 (making it a 13 year project). Already it has enabled gene hunters to pinpoint genes associated with more than 30 disorders. ^[15]

Cloning

Cloning involves the removal of the nucleus from one cell and its placement in an unfertilized egg cell whose nucleus has either been deactivated or removed.

There are two types of cloning:

1. Reproductive cloning. After a few divisions, the egg cell is placed into a uterus where it is allowed to develop into a fetus that is genetically identical to the donor of the original nucleus.

2. Therapeutic cloning. ^[16] The egg is placed into a Petri dish where it develops into embryonic stem cells, which have shown potentials for treating several ailments. A Petri dish is a shallow Glass or Plastic Cylindrical lidded dish that biologists use to culture cells It was named after ^[17]

In February 1997, cloning became the focus of media attention when Ian Wilmut and his colleagues at the Roslin Institute announced the successful cloning of a sheep, named Dolly, from the mammary glands of an adult female. The cloning of Dolly made it apparent to many that the techniques used to produce her could someday be used to clone human beings. ^[18] This stirred a lot of controversy because of its ethical implications.

Agriculture

Improve yield from crops

Using the techniques of modern biotechnology, one or two genes may be transferred to a highly developed crop variety to impart a new character that would increase its yield (30). History See also History of genetics The existence of genes was first suggested by Gregor Mendel (1822-1884 who in the 1860s studied inheritance However, while increases in crop yield are the most obvious applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture, it is also the most difficult one. Current genetic engineering techniques work best for effects that are controlled by a single gene. Many of the genetic characteristics associated with yield (e. g. , enhanced growth) are controlled by a large number of genes, each of which has a minimal effect on the overall yield (31). There is, therefore, much scientific work to be done in this area.

Reduced vulnerability of crops to environmental stresses

Crops containing genes that will enable them to withstand biotic and abiotic stresses may be developed. For example, drought and excessively salty soil are two important limiting factors in crop productivity. A drought is an extended period of months or years when a region notes a deficiency in its water supply A limiting factor or limiting resource is one that controls a process such as organism growth or species Population size or distribution Biotechnologists are studying plants that can cope with these extreme conditions in the hope of finding the genes that enable them to do so and eventually transferring these genes to the more desirable crops. One of the latest developments is the identification of a plant gene, At-DBF2, from thale cress, a tiny weed that is often used for plant research because it is very easy to grow and its genetic code is well mapped out. Arabidopsis thaliana ( A-ra-bi-dóp-sis tha-li-á-na; thale cress, mouse-ear cress or Arabidopsis) is a small When this gene was inserted into tomato and tobacco see RNA interference cells, the cells were able to withstand environmental stresses like salt, drought, cold and heat, far more than ordinary cells. The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. If these preliminary results prove successful in larger trials, then At-DBF2 genes can help in engineering crops that can better withstand harsh environments (32). Researchers have also created transgenic rice plants that are resistant to rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV). Rice yellow mottle virus (RYMV is a plant pathogenic virus In Africa, this virus destroys majority of the rice crops and makes the surviving plants more susceptible to fungal infections (33).

Increased nutritional qualities of food crops

Proteins in foods may be modified to increase their nutritional qualities. Proteins in legumes and cereals may be transformed to provide the amino acids needed by human beings for a balanced diet (34). A good example is the work of Professors Ingo Potrykus and Peter Beyer on the so-called Goldenrice(discussed below). Ingo Potrykus - retired since April 1999 - was full Professor of Plant Sciences specifically of Biotechnology of Plants at the Institute of Plant Sciences of the

Improved taste, texture or appearance of food

Modern biotechnology can be used to slow down the process of spoilage so that fruit can ripen longer on the plant and then be transported to the consumer with a still reasonable shelf life. This improves the taste, texture and appearance of the fruit. More importantly, it could expand the market for farmers in developing countries due to the reduction in spoilage.

The first genetically modified food product was a tomato which was transformed to delay its ripening (35). Researchers in Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand, Philippines and Vietnam are currently working on delayed-ripening papaya in collaboration with the University of Nottingham and Zeneca (36). The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. For the biogeographical region see Malesia Malaysia (məˈleɪʒə or /məˈleɪziə/ is a country that consists of thirteen states and The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially The University of Nottingham is a Public, Co-educational institution of Higher learning in the city of Nottingham, England. AstraZeneca PLC (,) is a large Anglo-Swedish Pharmaceutical company formed on 6 April 1999 by the remerger of Swedish Astra AB

Biotechnology in cheese production^[19]: enzymes produced by micro-organisms provide an alternative to animal rennet – a cheese coagulant - and an alternative supply for cheese makers. This also eliminates possible public concerns with animal-derived material, although there is currently no plans to develop synthetic milk, thus making this argument less compelling. Enzymes offer an animal-friendly alternative to animal rennet. While providing comparable quality, they are theoretically also less expensive.

About 85 million tons of wheat flour is used every year to bake bread^[20]. By adding an enzyme called maltogenic amylase to the flour, bread stays fresher longer. Assuming that 10-15% of bread is thrown away, if it could just stay fresh another 5–7 days then 2 million tons of flour per year would be saved. That corresponds to 40% of the bread consumed in a country such as the USA. This means more bread becomes available with no increase in input. In combination with other enzymes, bread can also be made bigger, more appetizing and better in a range of ways.

Reduced dependence on fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals

Most of the current commercial applications of modern biotechnology in agriculture are on reducing the dependence of farmers on agrochemicals. Agrichemical (or agrochemical) a contraction of agricultural chemical, is a generic term for the various Chemical products used in For example, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is a soil bacterium that produces a protein with insecticidal qualities. Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil dwelling Bacterium of the Genus Bacillus. Traditionally, a fermentation process has been used to produce an insecticidal spray from these bacteria. In this form, the Bt toxin occurs as an inactive protoxin, which requires digestion by an insect to be effective. Bacillus thuringiensis is a Gram-positive, soil dwelling Bacterium of the Genus Bacillus. There are several Bt toxins and each one is specific to certain target insects. Crop plants have now been engineered to contain and express the genes for Bt toxin, which they produce in its active form. When a susceptible insect ingests the transgenic crop cultivar expressing the Bt protein, it stops feeding and soon thereafter dies as a result of the Bt toxin binding to its gut wall. Bt corn is now commercially available in a number of countries to control corn borer (a lepidopteran insect), which is otherwise controlled by spraying (a more difficult process). Ostrinia is a genus of moths Several of them including the European Corn Borer, are agricultural pests

Crops have also been genetically engineered to acquire tolerance to broad-spectrum herbicide. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed The lack of cost-effective herbicides with broad-spectrum activity and no crop injury was a consistent limitation in crop weed management. Multiple applications of numerous herbicides were routinely used to control a wide range of weed species detrimental to agronomic crops. Weed management tended to rely on preemergence — that is, herbicide applications were sprayed in response to expected weed infestations rather than in response to actual weeds present. Mechanical cultivation and hand weeding were often necessary to control weeds not controlled by herbicide applications. The introduction of herbicide tolerant crops has the potential of reducing the number of herbicide active ingredients used for weed management, reducing the number of herbicide applications made during a season, and increasing yield due to improved weed management and less crop injury. Transgenic crops that express tolerance to glyphosate, glufosinate and bromoxynil have been developed. Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl glycine is a non-selective Systemic Herbicide, absorbed through the leaves injected into the bole or applied to the stump of Glufosinate or its ammonium salt DL-phosphinotricin is an active ingredient in several nonselective systemic Herbicides - Basta Rely Finale Challenge and Liberty These herbicides can now be sprayed on transgenic crops without inflicting damage on the crops while killing nearby weeds (37).

From 1996 to 2001, herbicide tolerance was the most dominant trait introduced to commercially available transgenic crops, followed by insect resistance. In 2001, herbicide tolerance deployed in soybean, corn and cotton accounted for 77% of the 626,000 square kilometres planted to transgenic crops; Bt crops accounted for 15%; and "stacked genes" for herbicide tolerance and insect resistance used in both cotton and corn accounted for 8% (38). Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp

Production of novel substances in crop plants

Biotechnology is being applied for novel uses other than food. For example, oilseed can be modified to produce fatty acids for detergents, substitute fuels and petrochemicals. A detergent (as a noun is a material intended to assist Cleaning. Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy Petrochemicals are chemical products made from raw materials of Petroleum or other Hydrocarbon origin Potatos, tomatos, rice, tobacco, lettuce, safflowers, and other plants have been genetically-engineered to produce insulin and certain vaccines. The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae The tomato ( Solanum lycopersicum, syn Lycopersicon lycopersicum) is a herbaceous usually sprawling plant in the Solanaceae or nightshade family Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Tobacco is an Agricultural product recognized as an addictive drug processed from the fresh Leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. Lettuce ( Lactuca sativa) is a Temperate annual or Biennial plant of the daisy family Asteraceae. Safflower ( Carthamus tinctorius L) is a highly branched Herbaceous, Thistle -like annual usually with many long sharp spines on the leaves Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease If future clinical trials prove successful, the advantages of edible vaccines would be enormous, especially for developing countries. The transgenic plants may be grown locally and cheaply. Homegrown vaccines would also avoid logistical and economic problems posed by having to transport traditional preparations over long distances and keeping them cold while in transit. And since they are edible, they will not need syringes, which are not only an additional expense in the traditional vaccine preparations but also a source of infections if contaminated. ^[21] In the case of insulin grown in transgenic plants, it is well-established that the gastrointestinal system breaks the protein down therefore this could not currently be administered as an edible protein. However, it might be produced at significantly lower cost than insulin produced in costly, bioreactors. For example, Calgary, Canada-based SemBioSys Genetics, Inc. reports that its safflower-produced insulin will reduce unit costs by over 25% or more and reduce the capital costs associated with building a commercial-scale insulin manufacturing facility by approximately over $100 million compared to traditional biomanufacturing facilities[1].

Criticism

There is another side to the agricultural biotechnology issue however. It includes increased herbicide usage and resultant herbicide resistance, "super weeds," residues on and in food crops, genetic contamination of non-GM crops which hurt organic and conventional farmers, damage to wildlife from glyphosate, etc. A herbicide is used to kill unwanted Plants Selective herbicides kill specific targets while leaving the desired Crop relatively unharmed Glyphosate (N-(phosphonomethyl glycine is a non-selective Systemic Herbicide, absorbed through the leaves injected into the bole or applied to the stump of [2][3]

Biological engineering

Main article: Bioengineering

Biotechnological engineering or biological engineering is a branch of engineering that focuses on biotechnologies and biological science. Bioengineering (also known as Biological Engineering is the application of Engineering principles to address challenges in the fields of Biology and Medicine Engineering is the Discipline and Profession of applying technical and scientific Knowledge and It includes different disciplines such as biochemical engineering, biomedical engineering, bio-process engineering, biosystem engineering and so on. Biochemical engineering is a branch of Chemical engineering or Biological engineering that mainly deals with the design and construction of unit processes that Biomedical engineering ( BME) is the application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field Because of the novelty of the field, the definition of a bioengineer is still undefined. Bioengineering (also known as Biological Engineering is the application of Engineering principles to address challenges in the fields of Biology and Medicine However, in general it is an integrated approach of fundamental biological sciences and traditional engineering principles. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles

Bioengineers are often employed to scale up bio processes from the laboratory scale to the manufacturing scale. Moreover, as with most engineers, they often deal with management, economic and legal issues. Since patents and regulation (e. A patent is a set of Exclusive rights granted by a State to an inventor or his assignee for a fixed period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an g. FDA regulation in the U. S. ) are very important issues for biotech enterprises, bioengineers are often required to have knowledge related to these issues.

The increasing number of biotech enterprises is likely to create a need for bioengineers in the years to come. Many universities throughout the world are now providing programs in bioengineering and biotechnology (as independent programs or specialty programs within more established engineering fields). .

Bioremediation and Biodegradation

Main article: Microbial biodegradation

Biotechnology is being used to engineer and adapt organisms especially microorganisms in an effort to find sustainable ways to clean up contaminated environments. Interest in the microbial biodegradation of Pollutants has intensified in recent years as mankind strives to find sustainable ways to cleanup contaminated environments A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually The elimination of a wide range of pollutants and wastes from the environment is an absolute requirement to promote a sustainable development of our society with low environmental impact. See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological Biological processes play a major role in the removal of contaminants and biotechnology is taking advantage of the astonishing catabolic versatility of microorganisms to degrade/convert such compounds. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in New methodological breakthroughs in sequencing, genomics, proteomics, bioinformatics and imaging are producing vast amounts of information. For the sense of "sequencing" used in Electronic music, see the Music sequencer article Genomics is the study of an organism's entire Genome. The field includes intensive efforts to determine the entire DNA sequence of organisms and fine-scale Genetic Proteomics is the large-scale study of Proteins particularly their structures and functions. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to the field of molecular biology In the field of Environmental Microbiology, genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions. In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby Interest in the microbial biodegradation of Pollutants has intensified in recent years as mankind strives to find sustainable ways to cleanup contaminated environments Functional genomic and metagenomic approaches are increasing our understanding of the relative importance of different pathways and regulatory networks to carbon flux in particular environments and for particular compounds and they will certainly accelerate the development of bioremediation technologies and biotransformation processes. Carbon dioxide forms approximately 004% of the Earth's atmosphere. Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered Biotransformation is the chemical modification (or modifications made by an organism on a chemical compound ^[22]

Marine environments are especially vulnerable since oil spills of coastal regions and the open sea are poorly containable and mitigation is difficult. In addition to pollution through human activities, millions of tons of petroleum enter the marine environment every year from natural seepages. Despite its toxicity, a considerable fraction of petroleum oil entering marine systems is eliminated by the hydrocarbon-degrading activities of microbial communities, in particular by a remarkable recently discovered group of specialists, the so-called hydrocarbonoclastic bacteria (HCB). ^[23]

Notable researchers and individuals

• Canada : Frederick Banting, Lap-Chee Tsui, Tak Wah Mak, Lorne Babiuk
• Europe : Paul Nurse, Jacques Monod, Francis Crick
• Finland : Leena Palotie
• Iceland : Kari Stefansson
• India : Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw (Biocon)
• Ireland : Timothy O'Brien, Dermot P Kelleher
• Mexico : Francisco Bolívar Zapata, Luis Herrera-Estrella
• U.S. : David Botstein, Craig Venter, Sydney Brenner, Eric Lander, Leroy Hood, Robert Langer, James J. Collins, Roger Beachy, Herbert Boyer, Michael West, Thomas Okarma, James D. Watson

See also

• Bioeconomy
• Biomimetics
• Biotechnology industrial park
• Green Revolution
• List of biotechnology articles
• List of biotechnology companies
• List of emerging technologies
• Pharmaceutical company
• EuropaBio
• International Assessment of Agricultural Science and Technology for Development
• International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-biotech Applications

References

Further reading

• Friedman, Y. Building Biotechnology: Starting, Managing, and Understanding Biotechnology Companies. ISBN 978-0973467635.
• Oliver, Richard W. The Coming Biotech Age. ISBN 0-07-135020-9.
• Zaid, A; H. G. Hughes, E. Porceddu, F. Nicholas (2001). Glossary of Biotechnology for Food and Agriculture - A Revised and Augmented Edition of the Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering. Available in English, French, Spanish and Arabic. Rome: FAO. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 ISBN 92-5-104683-2.  

External links

• A report on Agricultural Biotechnology focusing on the impacts of "Green" Biotechnology with a special emphasis on economic aspects
• Russian Biotechnology Organization