Berbers
Notable Berbers: Saint Augustine of Hippo, Tariq ibn Ziyad, Ibn Battuta, Abd el-Krim, Zinedine Zidane
Total population
?
Regions with significant populations
Morocco  Algeria  United States  France  Canada  Spain  Tunisia  Mali  Niger  Libya  Lebanon  Netherlands  Belgium  United Kingdom  Denmark
Languages
Berber languages
Religions
Islam (mostly Sunni), Christianity (mostly Kabyle catholic)

Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. This is a list of famous Berber people In ancient times Egyptian Pharaohs Ramses II, according to L Tariq Ibn Ziyad or Taric bin Zeyad (طارق بن زياد d 720 known in Spanish history and legend as Taric el Tuerto (Taric the one-eyed was Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Abd el-Krim (c1882 Ajdir &ndash February 6, 1963, Cairo) ( Mulay Abdelkrim, full name Muhammad Ibn 'Abd El-Karim El-Khattabi Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The United States of America —commonly referred to as the This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Mali, officially the Republic of Mali (République du Mali is a Landlocked nation in Western Africa. Niger ( or /ˈnaɪdʒɚ/) officially the Republic of Niger, is a Landlocked country in Western Africa, named after the Niger River. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River They are discontinuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. The Siwa Oasis (واحة سيوة Wāḥat Sīwah, from Berber Siwa "prey bird protector of the sun god Amon-Ra This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The Niger River (ˈnaɪdʒɚ NYE-jer) is the principal River of western Africa, extending about 4180 km (2600 miles They speak various Berber languages, which together form a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa Between fourteen and twenty-five million Berber speakers live within this region, most densely in Morocco and becoming generally scarcer eastward through the rest of the Maghreb and beyond. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset

Many Berbers call themselves some variant of the word Imazighen (singular Amazigh), meaning "free men". ^[1][2] This is common in Morocco, but elsewhere within the Berber homeland a local, more particular term, such as Kabyle or Chaoui, is more often used instead. The Kabyles ( Iqvaylyen or Iqbayliyen in Kabyle, iqβajlijən are a Berber people whose traditional Homeland is highlands of The Chaouis are a Berber people who live mainly in the Aurès Region and Aurès Mountains. ^[3] Historically Berbers have been variously known, for instance as Libyans by the ancient Greeks,^[4] as Numidians and Mauri by the Romans, and as Moors by medieval and early modern Europeans. Ancient Libya was the region west of the Nile Valley. It corresponds to what is now generally called Northwest Africa. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The Numidians were semi-nomadic Berber tribes who lived in Numidia, in Algeria east of Constantine and in part of Tunisia and Morocco In Antiquity Mauretania was originally an independent Berber kingdom on the Mediterranean coast of North Africa (named after the Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The modern English term is borrowed from Arabic, but the deeper etymology of "Berber" is not certain. Etymology is the study of the History of Words &mdash when they entered a language from what source and how their form and meaning have changed over time (See also: Berber (Etymology). The term Berber is but a variation of the Latin original word Barbarian, earlier in history applied by Romans specifically to their northern hostile neighbors from )

The best known of them were the Roman author Apuleius, the Roman emperor Septimius Severus, and St. Augustine, whose mother was a Berber^[5]. Apuleius should not be confused with Lucius Appuleius Saturninus, a Roman demagogue or with Pseudo-Apuleius, an author Lucius Septimius Severus (or rarely Severus I) ( April 11 145 - February 4 211) was a Roman general and Roman Emperor

Berber people in Maghreb

During the pre-Roman era, several successive Independent States (Massaesyles, Massyles, Moors . The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent . . etc) existed before the king Massinissa unified the people of Numidia. Masinissa or Massinissa (c 240 or 238 BC - c 148 BC was the first King of Numidia, an ancient North African nation of Ancient Libyan tribes Numidia (202 BC – 46 BC was an ancient Berber kingdom in present-day Algeria and part of Tunisia ( North Africa) that later alternated ^{[6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11]}

According to historians of the Middle Ages, the Berbers are divided into two branches, two are from their ancestor Mazigh. In sum, the two branches Botr and Barnès are also divided into tribes. each Maghreb region is made up of several tribes. The large Berber tribes or peoples are Sanhadja, Houaras, Zenata, Masmouda, Kutama, Awarba, Berghwata . The Sanhaja (also commonly spelled "Sanhadja" were one of the largest Berber tribal confederations of the Maghreb, along with the Zanata The Zenata are one of the main divisions of the medieval Berbers, along with Senhaja and Masmuda. The Masmuda were one of the largest Berber tribal confederacies in the Maghreb, along with the Zanata and the Sanhaja. The Kutama were a Berber tribein the region of Jijel a member of the great Bavares orientaux confederation of the Maghreb The Barghawata (also Barghwata or Berghouata) were a medieval Berber tribe confederation of the Atlantic coast of Morocco, belonging . . etc. Each tribe is divided into sub tribes. All these tribes have independence and territorial decisions. ^{[12] [13]}

Several Berber dynasties have emerged during the Middle Ages to the Maghreb, Sudan, in Andalusia, Italy, in Mali, Niger, Senegal, Egypt . . . etc. . Ibn Khaldoun is a table summarizing the Maghreb dynasties whose Berber Dynasties: Zirid, Banu Ifran, Maghrawa, Almoravid, Hammadid, Almohad, Merinid, Abdalwadid, Wattasid , Meknassa, ,,. The Zirids (زيريون were a Berber dynasty originating in Petite Kabylie among the Kutama tribe that ruled Ifriqiya (in modern day Eastern Banu Ifran (بنو يفرن a Berber tribe prominent in the affairs of Algeria in Aures eastern Algeria History They were one of the four major tribes The Magrawa were a Berber tribe in Morocco and central and western Algeria. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during The Hammadids, an offshoot of the Zirids were a Berber dynasty who ruled an area roughly corresponding to modern Algeria for about a century and a half The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i The Anglicised name used for this article derives from the Arabic Banu Marin (also Benī Merīn, which is the source of the Spanish name Abdalwadid is the name of a Berber Zenata dynasty in North Africa The Wattassids (وطاسيون waṭāsīyūn or Banû Watâs (بنو الوطاس banū al-waṭās were an Amazigh dynasty of Kingdom of Fez. Meknes (مكناس is a city in northern Morocco, located 130 kilometres from the capital Rabat and 60 kilometres from Fes. . . Hafsides dynasties. ^{[14] [15]}

History

A Berber family crossing a ford - scene in Algeria

The Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean for as far back as records of the area go. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The earliest inhabitants of the region are found on the rock art across the Sahara. References to them also occur frequently in ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman sources. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages Berber groups are first mentioned in writing by the ancient Egyptians during the Predynastic Period, and during the New Kingdom the Egyptians later fought against the Meshwesh and Libu tribes on their western borders. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King The New Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in Ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BC and The Meshwesh (often abbreviated in ancient Egyptian as Ma) were an Ancient Libyan (i The Libu ( R'bw, Ribou or Labu) were a tribe of Ancient Libyans first attested in ancient Egyptian texts from the A tribe, viewed historically or developmentally consists of a Social group existing before the development of or outside of States Many anthropologists use From about 945 BC the Egyptians were ruled by Meshwesh immigrants who founded the Twenty-second Dynasty under Shoshenq I, beginning a long period of Berber rule in Egypt. The Twenty-First Twenty-Second, Twenty-Third Twenty-Fourth and Twenty-Fifth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title Third Intermediate Hedjkheperre Setepenre Shoshenq I ( Egyptian ššnq) also known as Shishak, Sheshonk or Sheshonq I (for discussion of the spelling They long remained the main population of the Western Desert—the Byzantine chroniclers often complained of the Mazikes (Amazigh) raiding outlying monasteries there.

For many centuries the Berbers inhabited the coast of North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. Over time, the coastal regions of North Africa saw a long parade of invaders and colonists including Phoenicians (who founded Carthage), Greeks (mainly in Cyrene, Libya), Romans, Vandals and Alans, Byzantines, Arabs, Ottomans, and the French and Spanish. Phoenicia ( Phoenician: Phoenician nunsvg|12px|נ]]Phoenician nun Carthage (Καρχηδών Karkhēdōn, Carthago from the Phoenician קרת חדשת phn-Latn Qart-ḥadašt meaning new town) refers The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions Cyrene (in Greek, Κυρήνη &ndash Kurene) was an ancient Greek Colony in present-day Libya, the oldest and most Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The Alans or Alani (occasionally but more rarely termed Alauni or Halani) were an Iranian nomadic group among the Sarmatian people The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Most if not all of these invaders have left some imprint upon the modern Berbers as have slaves brought from throughout Europe (some estimates place the number of Europeans brought to North Africa during the Ottoman period as high as 1. 25 million)[2]. Interactions with neighboring Sudanic empires, sub-Saharan Africans, and nomads from East Africa also left impressions upon the Berber peoples.

In historical times, the Berbers expanded south into the Sahara (displacing earlier populations such as the Azer and Bafour), and have in turn been mainly culturally assimilated in much of North Africa by Arabs, particularly following the incursion of the Banu Hilal in the 11th century. The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest The Bafours were the original inhabitants of Mauritania, and the ancestors to the Imraguen and Soninke people of western Africa The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Banu Hilal ( بنو هلال) were a confederation of Arab tribes that migrated from Arabia into North Africa in the 11th century, having

The areas of North Africa which retained the Berber language and traditions have, in general, been those least exposed to foreign rule—in particular, the highlands of Kabylie and Morocco, most of which even in Roman and Ottoman times remained largely independent, and where the Phoenicians never even penetrated far beyond the coast. However, even these areas have been affected by some of the many invasions of North Africa, most recently including the French. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Another source of foreign influence, particularly from across the Sahara, where the trans-Saharan slave trade was operated by the Berbers and Arabs. The Arab Slave trade was the practice of Slavery in West Asia, North Africa, East Africa, and certain parts of Europe (such

Berbers and the Islamic conquest

Unlike the conquests of previous religions and cultures, the coming of Islam, which was spread by Arabs, was to have pervasive and long-lasting effects on the Maghreb. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset The new faith, in its various forms, would penetrate nearly all segments of society, bringing with it armies, learned men, and fervent mystics, and in large part replacing tribal practices and loyalties with new social norms and political idioms.

Nonetheless, the Islamization and Arabization of the region were complicated and lengthy processes. Whereas nomadic Berbers were quick to convert and assist the Arab conquerors, not until the twelfth century, under the Almohad Dynasty, did the Christian and Jewish communities become totally marginalized. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth PLEASE TAKE NOTE************

The first Arab military expeditions into the Maghrib, between 642 and 669, resulted in the spread of Islam. These early forays from a base in Egypt occurred under local initiative rather than under orders from the central caliphate. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. When the seat of the caliphate moved from Medina to Damascus, however, the Umayyads (a Muslim dynasty ruling from 661 to 750) recognized that the strategic necessity of dominating the Mediterranean dictated a concerted military effort on the North African front. In 670, therefore, an Arab army under Uqba ibn Nafi established the town of Qayrawan about 160 kilometers south of present-day Tunis and used it as a base for further operations. Uqba ibn Nafi () (also referred to as Uqba bin Nafe Uqba Ibn al Nafia or Akbah (622&ndash683 was an Arab general under the Umayyad dynasty who began the Kairouan ( Arabic القيروان (also known as Kirwan, Al Qayrawan) is a Muslim holy city which ranks after Mecca, Medina Tunis ( Arabic: تونس Tūnis) is the Capital of the Tunisian Republic and also the Tunis

Abu al Muhajir Dinar, Uqba's successor, pushed westward into Algeria and eventually worked out a modus vivendi with Kusaila, the ruler of an extensive confederation of Christian Berbers. Kusaila (? - 690 (also spelled Kusayla, Kosaila, Koceila in French spelling or Kasila (the preferred pronunciation by modern researchers Kusaila, who had been based in Tilimsan (Tlemcen), became a Muslim and moved his headquarters to Takirwan, near Al Qayrawan. Tlemcen is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the the province of the same name.

This harmony was short-lived, however. Arab and Berber forces controlled the region in turn until 697. By 711, Umayyad forces helped by Berber converts to Islam had conquered all of North Africa. Governors appointed by the Umayyad caliphs ruled from Kairouan, capital the new wilaya (province) of Ifriqiya, which covered Tripolitania (the western part of present-day Libya), Tunisia, and eastern Algeria. Kairouan ( Arabic القيروان (also known as Kirwan, Al Qayrawan) is a Muslim holy city which ranks after Mecca, Medina Tripolitaniajpg|thumb|250px|Tripolitania]] Tripolitania or Tripolitana ( Arabic: طرابلس, Transliterated: Tarābulus) is a historic Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa.

However, the spread of Islam among the Berbers did not guarantee their support for the Arab-dominated caliphate. The ruling Arabs alienated the Berbers by taxing them heavily; treating converts as second-class Muslims; and, at worst, by enslaving them. As a result, widespread opposition took the form of open revolt in 739-40 under the banner of Kharijite Islam. The Kharijites objected to Ali, the fourth caliph, making peace with the Umayyads in 657 and left Ali's camp (khariji means "those who leave"). The Kharijites had been fighting Umayyad rule in the East, and many Berbers were attracted by the sect's egalitarian precepts. For example, according to Kharijism, any suitable Muslim candidate could be elected caliph without regard to race, station, or descent from the Prophet Muhammad. Kharijites (Arabic Khawārij خوارج literally "Those who Went Out" is a general term embracing various Muslims who while initially supporting the IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics

After the revolt, Kharijites established a number of theocratic tribal kingdoms, most of which had short and troubled histories. Others, however, like Sijilmasa and Tilimsan, which straddled the principal trade routes, proved more viable and prospered. Sijilmasa (or Sijilmassa) was a Mediaeval trade centre in the western Maghreb. Tlemcen is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the the province of the same name. In 750, the Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads as Muslim rulers, moved the caliphate to Baghdad and reestablished caliphal authority in Ifriqiya, appointing Ibrahim ibn al Aghlab as governor in Kairouan. Ibrahim I ibn al-Aghlab (إبراهيم بن الأغلب 756-812 was the first Emir of the Aghlabids in Ifriqiya (800-812 He was the son of al-Aghlab Kairouan ( Arabic القيروان (also known as Kirwan, Al Qayrawan) is a Muslim holy city which ranks after Mecca, Medina Although nominally serving at the caliph's pleasure, Al Aghlab and his successors, the Aghlabids, ruled independently until 909, presiding over a court that became a center for learning and culture. The Aghlabid dynasty of emirs members of the Arab tribe of Bani Tamim, ruled Ifriqiya (northern Africa nominally on behalf of the Abbasid

Just to the east of Aghlabid lands, Abd ar Rahman ibn Rustam ruled most of the central Maghrib from Tahert, southwest of Algiers. The Aghlabid dynasty of emirs members of the Arab tribe of Bani Tamim, ruled Ifriqiya (northern Africa nominally on behalf of the Abbasid Tiaret ( Berber:; Tihert or Tahert, ie "station" تيارت is the name of a large Algerian town one that gives its name to the wider farming Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest The rulers of the Rustamid imamate, which lasted from 761 to 909, each an Ibadi Kharijite imam, were elected by leading citizens. The Rustamid (or Rustumid, Rostemid) dynasty of Ibāḍī Kharijite imāms ruled the central Maghreb as a Muslim theocracy The Ibadi movement or Ibadiyya (Arabic الاباضية al-Ibāḍiyyah is a form of Islam distinct from the Shi'a and Sunni denominations Kharijites (Arabic Khawārij خوارج literally "Those who Went Out" is a general term embracing various Muslims who while initially supporting the An imam (إمام plural ائمة A'immah, امام is an Islamic leader often the leader of a Mosque and/or community The imams gained a reputation for honesty, piety, and justice. The court at Tahert was noted for its support of scholarship in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, as well as theology and law. Tiaret ( Berber:; Tihert or Tahert, ie "station" تيارت is the name of a large Algerian town one that gives its name to the wider farming The Rustamid imams, however, failed, by choice or by neglect, to organize a reliable standing army. The Rustamid (or Rustumid, Rostemid) dynasty of Ibāḍī Kharijite imāms ruled the central Maghreb as a Muslim theocracy This important factor, accompanied by the dynasty's eventual collapse into decadence, opened the way for Tahert's demise under the assault of the Fatimids.

Berbers in Al-Andalus

The Muslims who entered Iberia in 711 were mainly Berbers, and were led by a Berber, Tariq ibn Ziyad, though under the suzerainty of the Arab Caliph of Damascus Abd al-Malik and his North African Viceroy, Musa ibn Nusayr. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Tariq Ibn Ziyad or Taric bin Zeyad (طارق بن زياد d 720 known in Spanish history and legend as Taric el Tuerto (Taric the one-eyed was The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Damascus ( دمشق,, also commonly known as الشام ash-Shām) is the capital and largest city of Syria. Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (646-705 (عبد الملك بن مروان was the 5th Umayyad Caliph. Musa bin Nusair also Musa ben Nusair or Musa Ibn Nusayr (موسى بن نصير 640—716 was a Syrian Muslim who served as a governor and general under A second mixed army of Arabs and Berbers came in 712 under Ibn Nusayr himself. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding They supposedly they helped the Umayyad caliph Abd ar-Rahman I in Al-Andalus, because his mother was a Berber. Abd ar-Rahman I Arabic (عبد الرحمن الداخل (known as the "Falcon of Andalus" or "The Falcon of the Quraish " (born 731 ruled from 756 through Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or During the Taifa era, the petty kings came from a variety of ethnic groups; some-- for instance the Zirid kings of Granada--were of Berber origin. A taifa (from طائفة ṭā'ifa, plural طوائف ṭawā'if) in the history of Iberia was an independent Muslim -ruled principality The Zirids (زيريون were a Berber dynasty originating in Petite Kabylie among the Kutama tribe that ruled Ifriqiya (in modern day Eastern Granada is a city and the capital of the province of Granada, in the autonomous region of Andalusia, Spain. The Taifa period ended when a Berber dynasty--the Almoravids from modern-day Western Sahara and Mauritania--took over Al-Andalus; they were succeeded by the Almohad dynasty from Morocco, during which time al-Andalus flourished. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during Western Sahara ( Arabic: الصحراء الغربية; transliterated: as-Ṣaḥrā' al-Gharbīyah; Sahara Occidental is a territory Mauritania (موريتانيا Mūrītāniyā officially the Islamic Republic of Mauritania, is a country Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa

In the power hierarchy, Berbers were situated between the Arabic aristocracy and the Muladi populace. The Muladi (muladí, pl muladíes or muwallad (pl muwalladun or muwalladeen) were Muslims of ethnic Ethnic rivalry was one of the most important factors driving Andalusi politics.

After the fall of the Caliphate, the taifa kingdoms of Toledo, Badajoz, Málaga and Granada had Berber rulers. Toledo Spain locationpng|thumb|right|200px|Location of Toledo in Spain Badajoz - (IPA, formerly written Badajos in English the capital of the Spanish province of Badajoz in the autonomous community

Arabization of Northwest Africa

Before the 9th century, most of Northwest Africa was a Berber-speaking Muslim area. The process of Arabization only became a major factor with the arrival of the Banu Hilal, a tribe sent by the Fatimids of Egypt to punish the Berber Zirid dynasty for having abandoned Shiism. The Banu Hilal ( بنو هلال) were a confederation of Arab tribes that migrated from Arabia into North Africa in the 11th century, having The Zirids (زيريون were a Berber dynasty originating in Petite Kabylie among the Kutama tribe that ruled Ifriqiya (in modern day Eastern The Banu Hilal reduced the Zirids to a few coastal towns, and took over much of the plains; their influx was a major factor in the Arabization of the region, and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant.

Soon after independence, the countries of North Africa established Arabic as their official language, replacing French (except in Libya), although the shift from French to Arabic for official purposes continues even to this day. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory As a result, most Berbers had to study and know Arabic, and had no opportunities to use their mother tongue at school or university. A first language (also mother tongue, native language, arterial language, or L1) is the language a human being learns from birth This may have accelerated the existing process of Arabization of Berbers, especially in already bilingual areas, such as among the Chaouis. The Chaouis are a Berber people who live mainly in the Aurès Region and Aurès Mountains.

Berberism had its roots before the independence of these countries, but was limited to some Berber elite. Berberism ( Amazigh: Timmuzgha) is a political-cultural movement found mainly in Kabylia, Algeria and later in Morocco. It only began to gain success when North African states replaced the colonial language with Arabic and identified exclusively as Arab nations, downplaying or ignoring the existence and the cultural specificity of Berbers. However, its distribution remains highly uneven. In response to its demands, Morocco and Algeria have both modified their policies, with Algeria redefining itself constitutionally as an "Arab, Berber, Muslim nation".

Currently, Berber is a "national" language in Algeria and is taught in some Berber speaking areas as a non-compulsory language. In Morocco, Berber has no official status, but is now taught as a compulsory language regardless of the area or the ethnicity.

Berbers are sometimes not discriminated against based on their ethnicity or mother tongue. As long as they share the reigning ideology, they can reach high positions in the social hierarchy; good examples are the former president of Algeria, Liamine Zeroual, and the current prime minister of Morocco, Driss Jettou. Liamine Zéroual (اليمين زروال Berber: Lyamin Ẓerwal (born 3 July 1941 in Batna) was President of Algeria Driss Jettou (إدريس جطو (born May 24 1945) was the Prime Minister of Morocco from 2002 to 2007 In Algeria, furthermore, Chaoui Berbers are over-represented in the Army for historical reasons. The Chaouis are a Berber people who live mainly in the Aurès Region and Aurès Mountains.

Berberists who openly show their political orientations rarely reach high hierarchical positions. Berberism ( Amazigh: Timmuzgha) is a political-cultural movement found mainly in Kabylia, Algeria and later in Morocco. However, Khalida Toumi, a feminist and Berberist militant, has been nominated as head of the Ministry of Communication in Algeria. Khalida Toumi (born 13 March 1958) aka Khalida Messaoudi, is an Algerian politician former

Modern-day Berbers

Berber village in the high Atlas in Morocco (Imlil valley)

The Berbers live mainly in Morocco (between 90% of the population) and in Algeria (about 60% of the population), as well as Libya and Tunisia, though exact statistics are unavailable[3]; see Berber languages. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today Most North Africans who consider themselves Arab also have mainly Berber ancestry[4]. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Prominent Berber groups include the Kabyles of northern Algeria, who number approximately 4 million and have kept, to a large degree, their original language and culture; and the Chleuh (francophone plural of Arabic "Shalh" and Tashelhiyt "ašəlḥi") of south Morocco, numbering about 8 million. The Kabyles ( Iqvaylyen or Iqbayliyen in Kabyle, iqβajlijən are a Berber people whose traditional Homeland is highlands of The Chleuh people (or Shleuh: the 'ch' is the French equivalent of the English 'sh' native name 'ašəlḥi' pl Tashelhiyt (also Tashelhit or Tachelhit or Tachelhiyt or Shilha, native name tašlḥiyt, French: tachelhit Other groups include the Riffians of north Morocco, the Chaouia of Algeria, and the Tuareg of the Sahara. For the Eleventh Century Talmudist see Isaac Alfasi The Rif ( Berber: Arabic:جبال الريف is a mainly mountainous Chaouia (Chaouia θšawiθ or Hšawiθ) is the eponymous Berber language spoken by the Chaoui people of eastern Algeria The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest There are approximately 2. 2 million Berber immigrants in Europe, especially the Riffians and the Kabyles in the Netherlands and France. For the Eleventh Century Talmudist see Isaac Alfasi The Rif ( Berber: Arabic:جبال الريف is a mainly mountainous The Kabyles ( Iqvaylyen or Iqbayliyen in Kabyle, iqβajlijən are a Berber people whose traditional Homeland is highlands of The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Some proportion of the inhabitants of the Canary Islands are descended from the aboriginal Guanches--usually considered to have been Berber--among whom a few Canary Islander customs, such as the eating of gofio, originated. The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish See also Canary Islands in pre-colonial times Guanches (also Guanchis or Guanchos) now extinct as a distinct people were the first known Gofio is a stoneground Flour made from roasted cereals (eg wheat barley or bot fern maize and a little added salt

Distribution of Berbers in Northwest Africa

Although stereotyped in the West as nomads, most Berbers were in fact traditionally farmers, living in the mountains relatively close to the Mediterranean coast, or oasis dwellers; the Tuareg and Zenaga of the southern Sahara, however, were nomadic. The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic Zenaga (autonym Tuḍḍungiyya) is a Berber language spoken by some 200 to 300 people (Ethnologue estimate 1998 between Mederdra and the Atlantic The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest Some groups, such as the Chaouis, practiced transhumance. The Chaouis are a Berber people who live mainly in the Aurès Region and Aurès Mountains. Transhumance is a term with two accepted usages Older sources use transhumance for vertical seasonal Livestock movement typically to higher

Political tensions have arisen between some Berber groups (especially the Kabyle) and North African governments over the past few decades, partly over linguistic and cultural issues; for instance, in Morocco, giving children Berber names was banned. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa

Origin

Various disciplines shed light on the origin of the Berbers.

Archaeology

The Neolithic Capsian culture appeared in North Africa around 9,500 BC and lasted until possibly 2700 BC. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Capsian culture (named after the town of Gafsa in Tunisia) was a Mesolithic culture of the Maghreb, which lasted from about 10000 to 6000 Linguists and population geneticists alike have identified this culture as a probable period for the spread of an Afro-Asiatic language (ancestral to the modern Berber languages) to the area. The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa The origins of the Capsian culture, however, are archeologically unclear. Some have regarded this culture's population as simply a continuation of the earlier Mesolithic Ibero-Maurusian culture, which appeared around ~22,000 BC, while others argue for a population change; the former view seems to be supported by dental evidence. The Mesolithic or Middle Stone Age was a period in the development of human technology in between the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age and the Neolithic or New Stone Age [5]

Physical Anthropology

"At best we can define Berbers as Mediterranean. The Mediterranean race was one of the three sub-categories into which the people of Europe were divided by anthropologists in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century In terms of physical anthropology they are more closely related to Egyptians, Sicilians and Spaniards than to Nigerians, Saudi Arabians, or Ethiopians. This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Nigeria, officially named the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a federal Constitutional republic comprising thirty-six states and one Federal The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page . . . "^[16].

There are also theories mixed with observations by acknowledged racists, now discredited by the scientific community, although once popular with the like-minded during the Nazi era, and earlier, which speculate about the Berber people of North Africa. ^[17]

Genetic evidence

In general, genetic evidence appears to indicate that most North Africans (whether they consider themselves Berber or Arab) are predominantly of Berber origin and that populations ancestral to the Berbers have been in the area since the Upper Paleolithic era. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa Berbers appear to be largely descended from a group or groups of people who expanded west from an eastern origin, along the southern rim of the Mediterranean sea, beginning perhaps as much as 50 000 years ago. Significant proportions of both the Berber and Arabized Berber gene pools also derive from more recent migration of various groups who have left their genetic footprints to varying degrees throughout the region. Arabized Berber is a term used to denote an inhabitant of the North African Maghreb of Berber origin whose native language is a Dialect of Arabic Human migration denotes any movement by Humans from one locality to another sometimes over long distances or

Y-chromosome DNA

Y chromosomes are passed exclusively through the paternal line.

Bosch et al. (2001), found little genetic distinction between Arabic-speaking and Berber-speaking populations in North Africa, which they take to support the interpretation of the Arabization and Islamization of northwestern Africa, starting with word-borrowing during the 7th century A. Arabization ( Arabic: تعريب) describes a growing cultural influence on a non-Arab area that gradually changes into one that speaks Arabic and/or Islamization (also spelt Islamisation, see Spelling differences) or Islamification means the process of a society's conversion to the religion of Islam D. and through State Arabic Language Officialisation post independence in 1962, as cultural phenomena without extensive genetic replacement. According to this study the historical origins of the NW African Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows: 75% E1b1b (M78, M35, and M81) from the Upper Paleolithic , 13% J (J1-M267 and J2-M172) from the Neolithic, 4% historic European gene flow and 8% recent sub-Saharan African. The Y chromosome is the sex-determining Chromosome in most Mammals including Humans In mammals it contains the gene SRY, which triggers In Human genetics, Y Haplogroup E1b1b (E-M215 is a Y-chromosome Haplogroup, a sub-group of Haplogroup E, which is defined by The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe Africa The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries They identify the "75% NW African Upper Paleolithic" E1b1b component as "an Upper Paleolithic colonization that probably had its origin in Eastern Africa", which further studies have narrowed down specifically to the Horn of Africa^[18][19], and which is supported by other studies: "E3b originated in sub-saharan Africa and spread to the Near East and North Africa at the end of the Pleistocene". The Horn of Africa (alternatively Northeast Africa, and sometimes Somali Peninsula; shortened to HOA) is a Peninsula in East Africa ^[20]The North-west African population's 75% E1b1b Y chromosome genetic contribution from the Horn of Africa contrasted with a 78% contribution to the Iberian population from western Asia, suggests that the northern rim of the Mediterranean with the Strait of Gibraltar acted as a strong, albeit incomplete, barrier. The Strait of Gibraltar ( Arabic: مضيق جبل طارق Spanish: Estrecho de Gibraltar) is the Strait that connects the Atlantic However this study only analysed a small sample of Moroccan Y lineages.

A more recent and thorough study by Arredi et al. (2004) which analyzed five additional Arab and Berber populations from Algeria, Egypt, and Tunisia concludes that "the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation" (including both E1b1b and J haplogroups) "is largely of Neolithic origin", which suggests that "the Neolithic transition in this part of the world was accompanied by demic diffusion of Afro-Asiatic-speaking pastoralists from the Middle East". In Human genetics, Y Haplogroup E1b1b (E-M215 is a Y-chromosome Haplogroup, a sub-group of Haplogroup E, which is defined by ‎In Human genetics, Haplogroup J (previously known as HG9 or Eu9/Eu10) is a Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup. Further evidence for a significant Neolithic contribution to the population was later provided by Myles et al. (2005):

The data presented here are consistent with a scenario in which proto-Berber-speaking ovicaprid pastoralists introduced the –13910T allele, and thereby lactose tolerance, into North Africa. This scenario implies a genetic input from migrating pastoralists from the Middle East and suggests that contemporary Berber populations share a Middle Eastern dairying origin with other Eurasian populations. ^[21]

Cruciani et al. (2004) note that the E1b1b1b (M81) haplogroup on the Y-chromosome, colloquially known as the "Berber marker", correlates closely with Berber populations.

Nebel et al. (2002) of the Hebrew University argue that J1-M267 rather reflects "recent gene flow caused by the migration of Arabian tribes in the first millennium of the Common Era(700-800 A. The Hebrew University of Jerusalem (האוניברסיטה העברית בירושלים الجامعة العبرية في القدس abbreviated HUJI) is The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) D). " According to Nebel, the indigenous population of the Maghrib, the Berbers, have always been a composite people. After the 8th century CE, a process of Arabization affected the bulk of the Berbers, while the Arab-Islamic culture and population absorbed local elements as well. Under the unifying framework of Islam, on the one hand, and as a result of the Arab settlement, on the other, a fusion took place that resulted in a new ethnocultural entity all over the Maghrib^[22]. Another study on Haplogroup J (Semino et al. 2004) agrees with Nebel et al. 's suggestion that J1-M267 may have spread to North Africa in historic times (as identified by the motif YCAIIa22-YCAIIb22; Algerians 35. 0%, Tunisians 30. 1%), which they assume to be a marker of the Arab expansion in the early medieval period. ^[23]. This theory is disputed by Arredi et al. (2004), who argue like Bosch et al. 2001 that the J1-M267 haplogroup (formerly H71) and North African Y-chromosomal diversity indicate a Neolithic-era "demic diffusion of Afro-Asiatic-speaking pastoralists from the Middle East. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa "

Mitochondrial DNA

mtDNA, by contrast, is inherited only from the mother. Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria.

According to Macaulay et al. 1999, "one-third of Mozabite Berber mtDNAs have a Near Eastern ancestry, probably having arrived in North Africa ∼50,000 years ago, and one-eighth have an origin in sub-Saharan Africa. The Mozabite people are a Berber ethnic group living in the M'zab (Central Algeria) in the northern Sahara. Europe appears to be the source of many of the remaining sequences, with the rest having arisen either in Europe or in the Near East. " [Maca-Meyer et al. 2003] analyze the "autochthonous North African lineage U6" in mtDNA, concluding that:

The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Near East. Around 30,000 years ago it spread to North Africa where it represents a signature of regional continuity. Subgroup U6a reflects the first African expansion from the Maghreb returning to the east in Paleolithic times. Derivative clade U6a1 signals a posterior movement from East Africa back to the Maghreb and the Near East. This migration coincides with the probable Afroasiatic linguistic expansion.

A genetic study by Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. 2004 argues concerning certain exclusively North African haplotypes that "expansion of this group of lineages took place around 10,500 years ago in North Africa, and spread to neighbouring population", and apparently that a specific Northwestern African haplotype, U6, probably originated in the Near East 30,000 years ago but has not been highly preserved and accounts for 6-8% in southern Moroccan Berbers, 18% in Kabyles and 28% in Mozabites. The Chleuh people (or Shleuh: the 'ch' is the French equivalent of the English 'sh' native name 'ašəlḥi' pl Rando et al. 1998 (as cited by [6]) "detected female-mediated gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa to NW Africa" amounting to as much as 21. 5% of the mtDNA sequences in a sample of NW African populations; the amount varied from 82% (Tuaregs) to 4% (Rifains). The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic For the Eleventh Century Talmudist see Isaac Alfasi The Rif ( Berber: Arabic:جبال الريف is a mainly mountainous This north-south gradient in the sub-Saharan contribution to the gene pool is supported by Esteban et al. Nevertheless, individual Berber communities display a considerably high mtDNA heterogeneity among them. The Berbers of Jerba Island, located in South Eastern Tunisia, display an 87% Eurasian contribution with no U6 haplotypes[7], while the Kesra of Tunisia, for example, display a much higher proportion of typical sub-Saharan mtDNA haplotypes (49%, including 4. 2% of M1 haplogroup) Cherni L, et al., as compared to the Zriba (8%). According to the article, "The North African patchy mtDNA landscape has no parallel in other regions of the world and increasing the number of sampled populations has not been accompanied by any substantial increase in our understanding of its phylogeography. Available data up to now rely on sampling small, scattered populations, although they are carefully characterized in terms of their ethnic, linguistic, and historical backgrounds. It is therefore doubtful that this picture truly represents the complex historical demography of the region rather than being just the result of the type of samplings performed so far. " Additionally, recent studies have discovered a close mitochondrial link between Berbers and the Saami of Scandinavia which confirms that the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers that repopulated northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum and reveals a direct maternal link between those European hunter-gatherer populations and the Berbers. The Sami people are the Indigenous people of northern Europe inhabiting Sápmi, which today encompasses parts of northern Sweden, Norway [8] [9]

Linguistic

Main article: Berber languages

The Berber languages form a branch of Afro-Asiatic, and thus descended from the proto-Afro-Asiatic language; on the basis of linguistic migration theory, this is most commonly believed by historical linguists (notably Igor Diakonoff and Christopher Ehret) to have originated in east Africa no earlier than 12,000 years ago, although Alexander Militarev argues instead for an origin in the Middle East, a theory that has met little support. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa Igor Mikhailovich Diakonov (И́горь Миха́йлович Дья́конов was a Russian Historian, linguist, and Translator and a renowned Christopher Ehret (born in c 1941 a professor of African History at UCLA since 1968 is a major figure in African history and African Historical linguistics Ehret specifically suggests identifying the Capsian culture with speakers of languages ancestral to Berber and/or Chadic, and sees the Capsian culture as having been brought there from the African coast of the Red Sea. The Chadic languages constitute a language family spoken across northern Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Central African Republic and Cameroon The Red Sea is a Salt water Inlet of the Indian Ocean between Africa and Asia. It is still disputed which branches of Afro-Asiatic are most closely related to Berber, but most linguists accept at least one of Semitic and Chadic as among its closest relatives within the family (see Afro-Asiatic languages. The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa )

The Nobiin variety of Nubian contains several Berber loanwords, according to Bechhaus-Gerst, suggesting a former geographical distribution extending further southeast than the present. Nobiin is a Northern Nubian language of the Nilo-Saharan phylum The Nubian language group, according to the most recent research by Bechhaus-Gerst comprises the following varieties Nobiin (previously known by

There are between 14 and 25 million speakers of Berber languages in North Africa (see population estimation), principally concentrated in Morocco and Algeria but with smaller communities as far east as Egypt and as far south as Burkina Faso. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Burkina Faso (bɚˌkiːnəˈfɑːsoʊ burr-KEE-na FAH-soh) also known by its short-form name Burkina, is a Landlocked nation in West Africa

Their languages, the Berber languages, form a branch of the Afroasiatic linguistic family comprising many closely related varieties, including Tarifit, Kabyle and Tashelhiyt, with a total of roughly 35-40 million speakers. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa Rifi redirects here for the location of the same name in Greece, see Rifi Greece Tarifit is a Northern Berber language Kabyle is a Berber language (Kabyle Ṯaqbayliṯ,, ˌθæqβæjˈlɪθ spoken by the Kabyle people Tashelhiyt (also Tashelhit or Tachelhit or Tachelhiyt or Shilha, native name tašlḥiyt, French: tachelhit A frequently used generic name for all Berber languages is Tamazight. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today

Ethnic groups

• In Algeria:
  • Kabyle
  • Chaoui
  • Mozabite
• In Morroco:
  • Chleuh
• Multiple countries:
  • Tuareg
  • Zenata

Religions and beliefs

Main article: Berber beliefs

Berbers are mostly Sunni Muslim, while the Mozabites of the Saharan Mozabite Valley are mostly Ibadite. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The Kabyles ( Iqvaylyen or Iqbayliyen in Kabyle, iqβajlijən are a Berber people whose traditional Homeland is highlands of The Chaouis are a Berber people who live mainly in the Aurès Region and Aurès Mountains. The Mozabite people are a Berber ethnic group living in the M'zab (Central Algeria) in the northern Sahara. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa The Chleuh people (or Shleuh: the 'ch' is the French equivalent of the English 'sh' native name 'ašəlḥi' pl The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic The Zenata are one of the main divisions of the medieval Berbers, along with Senhaja and Masmuda. Berber beliefs or Amazigh beliefs are the beliefs of the indigenous Berber people of North Africa (not to be confused with the Ancient Egyptians Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Mozabite people are a Berber ethnic group living in the M'zab (Central Algeria) in the northern Sahara. The M'zab or Mzab, ( Tumzabt Aghlan) مزاب is a region of the northern Sahara, in the Ghardaïa Wilaya The Ibadi movement or Ibadiyya (Arabic الاباضية al-Ibāḍiyyah is a form of Islam distinct from the Shi'a and Sunni denominations

Important Berbers in Islamic history

Yusuf ibn Tashfin

(c. 1061 - 1106) was the Berber Almoravid ruler in North Africa and Al-Andalus (Morrish Iberia). The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra

He took the title of amir al-muslimin (commander of the Muslims) after visiting the Caliph of Baghdad 'amir al-moumineen" ("commander of the faithful")and officially receiving his support. He was either a cousin or nephew of Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar, the founder of the Almoravid dynasty. Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar (died in 1087 (أبو بكر بن عمر was an Al-Murabitoon ruler He united all of the Muslim dominions in the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal and Spain) to the Kingdom of Morocco (circa 1090), after being called to the Al-Andalus by the Emir of Seville. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Emir ( Arabic: ar أمير;, female أميرة; emira;) ( Farsi and Urdu: امیر) Seville ( Spanish: Sevilla, see also different names) is the artistic cultural and financial capital of southern Spain.

Yusuf bin Tashfin is the founder of the famous Moroccan city Marrakech (in Berber Murakush, corrupted to Morocco in English). Marrakesh or Marrakech ( Amazigh: Murakush, Arabic مراكش Murrakush) known as the "Red City" He himself chose the place where it was built in 1070 and later made it the capital of his Empire. Until then the Almoravids had been desert nomads, but the new capital marked their settling into a more urban way of life.

Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Tumart

(c. 1080 - c. 1130), was a Berber religious teacher and leader from the Masmuda tribe who spiritually founded the Almohad dynasty. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The Masmuda were one of the largest Berber tribal confederacies in the Maghreb, along with the Zanata and the Sanhaja. The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i He is also known as El-Mahdi (المهدي) in reference to his prophesied redeeming. In Islamic eschatology the Mahdi ( ar مهدي, also Mehdi; "Guided One" is the prophesied redeemer of Islam who will stay on earth In 1125 he began open revolt against Almoravid rule. The Almoravids, was a Berber dynasty from the Sahara that spread over a wide area of North-Western Africa and the Iberian peninsula during

The name "Ibn Tumart" comes from the Berber language and means "son of the earth. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today " ^[24]

Tariq ibn Ziyad

(d. Tariq Ibn Ziyad or Taric bin Zeyad (طارق بن زياد d 720 known in Spanish history and legend as Taric el Tuerto (Taric the one-eyed was 720), known in Spanish history and legend as Taric el Tuerto (Taric the one-eyed), was a Berber Muslim and Umayyad general who led the conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar He is considered to be one of the most important military commanders in Spanish history. He was initially the deputy of Musa ibn Nusair in North Africa, and was sent by his superior to launch the first thrust of an invasion of the Iberian peninsula. Musa bin Nusair also Musa ben Nusair or Musa Ibn Nusayr (موسى بن نصير 640—716 was a Syrian Muslim who served as a governor and general under The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra Some claim that he was invited to intervene by the heirs of the Visigothic King, Wittiza, in the Visigothic civil war. The Visigoths (Visigothi, Wisigothi, Vesi, Visi, Wesi, or Wisi were one of two main branches of the Goths, an East Wittiza ( Witiza, Witica, Witicha, Vitiza, or Witiges; c 687 &ndash probably 710 was the Visigothic King of

On April 29, 711, the armies of Tariq landed at Gibraltar (the name Gibraltar is derived from the Arabic name Jabal Tariq, which means mountain of Tariq, or the more obvious Gibr Al-Tariq, meaning rock of Tariq). Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Events By Place Europe April 30 — Ummayad troops led by Tariq ibn Ziyad land at Gibraltar, and begin Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Gibraltar (dʒɨˈbrɒltər is a British overseas territory located near the southernmost tip of the Iberian Peninsula overlooking the Strait of Gibraltar Upon landing, Tariq is said to have burned his ships then made the following speech, well-known in the Muslim world, to his soldiers:

أيّها الناس، أين المفر؟ البحر من ورائكم، والعدوّ أمامكم، وليس لكم والله إلا الصدق والصبر. . .

O People ! There is nowhere to run away! The sea is behind you, and the enemy in front of you: There is nothing for you, by God, except only sincerity and patience. (as recounted by al-Maqqari).

Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta

(born February 24, 1304; year of death uncertain, possibly 1368 or 1377) was a Berber^[25] Sunni Islamic scholar and jurisprudent from the Maliki Madhhab (a school of Fiqh, or Sunni Islamic law), and at times a Qadi or judge. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Jurisprudence is the Theory and Philosophy of Law. Scholars of jurisprudence or legal philosophers hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature The Maliki Madhhab ( Arabic مالكي) is one of the four schools of Fiqh or religious law within Sunni Islam Madhhab or Mazhab ( Arabic مذهب mæðhæb pl مذاهب mæðæːhıb) is an Islamic school of thought, or Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Qadi (also known as Qazi or Kazi or Kadi) (قاضي is a judge ruling in accordance with the Sharia, Islamic religious law However, he is best known as a traveler and explorer, whose account documents his travels and excursions over a period of almost thirty years, covering some 73,000 miles (117,000 km). These journeys covered almost the entirety of the known Islamic world, extending from present-day West Africa to Pakistan, India, the Maldives, Sri Lanka, Southeast Asia and China, a distance readily surpassing that of his predecessor, near-contemporary Marco Polo. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Maldives ( or, or Maldive Islands) officially the Republic of Maldives, is an Island nation consisting of a group of atolls stretching Sri Lanka, officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka ( Sinhalese:, இலங்கை known as Ceylon before 1972 is an Island China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer

Abu Ya'qub Yusuf

(died on July 29, 1184) was the second Almohad caliph. Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat The Almohad Dynasty (From Arabic الموحدون al-Muwahhidun, i The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah He reigned from 1163 until 1184. He had the Giralda in Seville built. The Giralda is the Bell tower of the Cathedral of Seville in Seville, Spain, one of the largest churches in the world and an outstanding example Seville ( Spanish: Sevilla, see also different names) is the artistic cultural and financial capital of southern Spain.

Abu Yaqub al-Mustansir Yusuf

Caliph of Morocco from 1213 until his death. This is a partial list of rulers in Morocco, including the historical precursors to the modern state Son of the previous caliph, Muhammad an-Nasir, Yusuf assumed the throne following his father's death, at the age of only 16 years. Muhammad an-Nâsir (الناصر لدين الله محمد بن المنصور an-nāṣir li-dīn allah muḥammad ben al-manṣūr date of birth unknown

Ziri ibn Manad

(d. 971), founder of the Zirid dynasty in the Maghreb. The Zirids (زيريون were a Berber dynasty originating in Petite Kabylie among the Kutama tribe that ruled Ifriqiya (in modern day Eastern The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset

Ziri ibn Manad was a clan leader of the Berber Sanhaja tribe who, as an ally of the Fatimids, defeated the rebellion of Abu Yazid (943-947). The Sanhaja (also commonly spelled "Sanhadja" were one of the largest Berber tribal confederations of the Maghreb, along with the Zanata Abû Yazîd Mukhallad ibn Kayrâd (أبو يزيد مخلد بن كيراد nicknamed Sâhib al-Himâr or "Owner of the Donkey" was a menber of Banu Ifran His reward was the governorship of the western provinces, an area that roughly corresponds with modern Algeria north of the Sahara. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest

Muhammad Awzal

Muhammad ibn Ali Awzal or al-Awzali was a religious Berber poet. A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos A poet is a person who writes Poetry. Etymology From the Ancient greek: ποιέω, poieō: "I make or compose" He is considered the most important author of the Tashelhiyt (southern Morocco Berber language) literary tradition. Tashelhiyt (also Tashelhit or Tachelhit or Tachelhiyt or Shilha, native name tašlḥiyt, French: tachelhit Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today He was born around 1670 in the village of al-Qasaba in the region of Sous, Morocco and died in 1748/9 (1162 of the Egira). The Sous or Souss ( Berber tamazirt n Sus, Arabic بلاد السوس bilād as-Sūs) is a region in southern Morocco. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Aigeira or Aegira (Αιγείρα older el Αίγειρα also Egira, Eyira, Aiyira is a community located about 500 m SW of the Gulf

Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Jazuli al-Simlali

From the tribe of Jazulah which was settled in the Sus area of Morocco between the Atlantic Ocean and the Atlas Mountains. Sidi Muhammad ibn Sulayman al-Jazuli al-Simlali (died 1465 was a Marinid Sufi leader of the Berber tribe of the Jazulah who lived in the Pigs, also called hogs or' swine', are Ungulates which have been domesticated as sources of food leather and similar products since ancient times Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa He is most famous for compiling the Dala'il al-Khayrat, an extremely popular Muslim prayer book. Dala'il al-Khayrat or Dalaail u'l Khayraat Wa Shawaariq u'l Anwaar Fee Zikri's Salaat Alan Nabiyyi'l Mukhtaar (meaning the Waymarks of Benefits and the Brilliant Burst of Sunshine A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion

Important Berbers in Christian history

Before adhering to Islam, most Berber groups were Christians, and a number of Berber theologians were important figures in the development of Western Christianity. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Western Christianity is a term used to cover the Latin Rite of the Roman Catholic Church, the Churches of the Anglican Communion, the Lutheran Church In particular, the Berber Donatus Magnus was the founder of a Christian group known as the Donatists. Donatus Magnus (311?-355? was the leader of the Donatists, a rigorist Early Christian sect in North Africa The Donatists (named for the Berber Christian Donatus Magnus) were followers of a belief considered a Schism by the broader churches of the The 4th century Catholic (i. Catholic is an Adjective derived from the Greek adjective '' / 'katholikos' meaning "whole" or "complete". e. common or universal) Church viewed the Donatists as heretics and the dispute lead to a schism in the church dividing North African Christians. ^[26] The Romano-Berber theologian known as Augustine of Hippo (modern Chaoui city of Annaba, Algeria), who is recognized as a saint and a Doctor of the Church by Roman Catholicism and the Anglican Communion, was an outspoken opponent of Donatism. Annaba (عنابة formerly Bône, historically Hippo) is a city in the northeastern corner of Algeria near the river Seybouse and A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity Doctor of the Church ( Latin doctor, teacher from Latin docere, to teach is a title given by a variety of Christian Churches to individuals See also Anglicanism The Anglican Communion is an international association of national Anglican churches ^[27] Many believe that Arius, another early Christian theologian who was deemed a heretic by the catholic Church, was of Libyan and Berber descent. Arius ( AD ca 250 or 256 - 336 was a Christian priest from Alexandria Egypt in the early fourth century whose teachings now called Arianism

Berber Jews

Main article: Berber Jews

Berber culture

Main articles: Berber music and Berber cuisine

Quotes

Famous Berbers

Main article: List of Berbers

See also

• Kabylie, a coastal Berber area, inhabited by Kabyles. This is a list of famous Berber people In ancient times Egyptian Pharaohs Ramses II, according to L This article focuses on the region in Algeria For the ethnic group see Kabyle people.
• Rif, a coastal Berber area, inhabited by Riffis. For the Eleventh Century Talmudist see Isaac Alfasi The Rif ( Berber: Arabic:جبال الريف is a mainly mountainous
• Zenata, ancestors of Riffis. The Zenata are one of the main divisions of the medieval Berbers, along with Senhaja and Masmuda.
• Senhaja, ancestors of Souss Chleuhs. The Sanhaja (also commonly spelled "Sanhadja" were one of the largest Berber tribal confederations of the Maghreb, along with the Zanata
• Masmouda, ancestors of Atlas Chleuhs
• Tuareg, a Saharan Berber group. The Masmuda were one of the largest Berber tribal confederacies in the Maghreb, along with the Zanata and the Sanhaja. The Tuareg (also Twareg or Touareg, Amazigh: Imuhagh / Itargiyen, besides regional ethnyms are a Nomadic
• Guanches, an indigenous people in the Canary Islands. See also Canary Islands in pre-colonial times Guanches (also Guanchis or Guanchos) now extinct as a distinct people were the first known The Canary Islands ( English pronunciation kəˈnæriː ˈaɪləndz Spanish: Islas Canarias, ˈizlas kaˈnarjas are a Spanish
• Berber languages
• Tamazgha, Berber name for North Africa. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today Tamazgha (in Tifinagh ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵖⴰ is a word Tamazight employed for the area more often known as the Maghreb or North Africa, covering
• Berber pantheon
• Berber mythology
• Berberism
• Arabized Berber
• Moors
• Berber Jews
• Barbary pirate
• Barbary Coast

References

• Arredi, Barbara, et al. The traditional Berber pantheon contains a variety of Gods Although most Berbers are now Muslim (and none profess paganism vestiges of their Berber beliefs or Amazigh beliefs are the beliefs of the indigenous Berber people of North Africa (not to be confused with the Ancient Egyptians Berberism ( Amazigh: Timmuzgha) is a political-cultural movement found mainly in Kabylia, Algeria and later in Morocco. Arabized Berber is a term used to denote an inhabitant of the North African Maghreb of Berber origin whose native language is a Dialect of Arabic The description Moors has referred to several historic and modern populations of Muslim (and earlier non-Muslim people of Berber and Arab descent Berber Jews are the Berber Jewish communities inhabiting the region of the Maghreb in North Africa. The Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim Pirates and Privateers that operated from North Africa, from The Barbary Coast, or Barbary, was the term used by Europeans from the 16th until the 19th century to refer to the middle and western coastal regions of North Africa—what (2004) "A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa". American Journal of Human Genetics, 75: 338–345
• Bosch, Elena, et al. (2001) "High-Resolution Analysis of Human Y-Chromosome Variation Shows a Sharp Discontinuity and Limited Gene Flow between Northwestern Africa and the Iberian Peninsula". American Journal of Human Genetics, 68: 1019–1029
• Brett, Michael; & Fentress, Elizabeth (1997). The Berbers (The Peoples of Africa). ISBN 0-631-16852-4. ISBN 0-631-20767-8 (Pbk).
• The Civilizations of Africa: A History to 1800 by Christopher Ehret
• Egypt In Africa by Celenko
• Stone Age Races of Northwest Africa by L. Cabot-Briggs
• The people of Africa (People of the world series) by Jean Hiernaux
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• Blanc, S. H. , Grammaire de la Langue Basque (d'apres celle de Larramendi), Lyons & Paris, 1854.
• Cruciani, Fulvio, et al. (2004) "Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E‐M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa". American Journal of Human Genetics, 74: 1014–1022
• Entwhistle, W. J. The Spanish Language, (as cited in Michael Harrison's work, 1974. ) London, 1936
• Gans Eric Lawrence, The Origin of Language, Univ. of California Press, Berkeley, 1981.
• Geze, L. , Elements de Grammaire Basque, Beyonne, 1873.
• Hachid, Malika, Les Premiers Berberes EdiSud, 2001
• Hagan, Helene E. , The Shining Ones: an Etymological Essay on the Amazigh Roots of Ancient Egyptian Civilisation. (XLibris, 2001)
• Hagan, Helene E. Tuareg Jewelry: Traditional Patterns and Symbols, (XLibris, 2006)
• Harrison, Michael, The Roots of Witchcraft, Citadel Press, Secaucus, N. J. , 1974.
• Hualde, J. I. , Basque Phonology, Routledge, London & New York, 1991.
• Martins, J. P. de Oliveira, A History of Iberian Civilization, Oxford University Press, 1930.
• Myles, Sean, et al. (2005) "Genetic evidence in support of a shared Eurasian-North African dairying origin". Human Genetics 117 (1): 34-42
• Nebel, Almut, et al. (2002) "Genetic Evidence for the Expansion of Arabian Tribes into the Southern Levant and North Africa" (letter to the editor). American Journal of Human Genetics, 70: 1594–1596
• Osborn, Henry Fairfield, Men of the Old Stone Age, New York, 1915-1923.
• Renan, Ernest, De l'Origine du Langage, Paris, 1858; La Societe' Berbere, Paris, 1873.
• Ripley, W. Z. , The Races of Europe, D. Appleton & Co. , New York, 1899.
• Ryan, William & Pitman, Walter, Noah's Flood: The new scientific discoveries about the event that changed history, Simon & Schuster, New York, 1998.
• Saltarelli, M. , Basque, Croom Helm, New York, 1988.
• Semino, Ornella, et al. (2004) "Origin, Diffusion, and Differentiation of Y-Chromosome Haplogroups E and J: Inferences on the Neolithization of Europe and Later Migratory Events in the Mediterranean Area". American Journal of Human Genetics, 74: 1023–1034
• Silverstein, Paul A. Algeria in France: Transpolitics, Race, and Nation, Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 2004.

Notes

External links

• Amazigh Music/ tachlhit - souss
• Amazigh/Berber Culture
• Amazigh/Berber Music
• Amazigh/Berber Chat
• Richard L. Smith, Ferrum College (2003). "What Happened to the Ancient Libyans? Chasing Sources across the Sahara from Herodotus to Ibn Khaldun". Journal of World History 14 (44). The Journal of World History is a refereed Scholarly journal that presents historical analysis from a global point-of-view focusing especially on forces that  
• Amazigh Startkabel.
• Institut Royal de la Culture Amazighe.
• The New Mass Media and the Shaping of Amazigh Identity.
• Number Systems and Calendars of the Berber Populations of Grand Canary and Tenerife.
• Encyclopedia of the Orient -- Berbers .
• Flags of the World -- Berbers/Imazighen.
• Imedyazen cultural association (in Berber).
• Photo Gallery of Berbers and Touregs from Erg Chebbi area of Moroccan Sahara
• The Genographic Project: Maps ancient human movements via genetic markers
• World Haplogroups Maps