| Рэспубліка Беларусь Республика Беларусь Republic of Belarus | ||||||
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| Anthem: Мы, беларусы (Belarusian) My, Belarusy (transliteration) We Belarusians | ||||||
 Location of Belarus (orange) on the European continent (white) — [Legend] | ||||||
| Capital (and largest city) | Minsk | |||||
| Official languages | Belarusian, Russian | |||||
| Demonym | Belarusian, Belarussian | |||||
| Government | Presidential republic | |||||
| - | President | Alexander Lukashenko | ||||
| - | Prime Minister | Sergey Sidorsky | ||||
| Independence | from the Soviet Union | |||||
| - | Declared | July 27, 1990 | ||||
| - | Established | August 25, 1991 | ||||
| - | Completed | December 25, 1991 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 207,600 km² (85th) 80,155 sq mi | ||||
| - | Water (%) | negligible (2. List of flags of Belarus The current national flag of Belarus was formally adopted on June 7 1995 following the result of a Referendum voted on by the Belarusian people The National Emblem of Belarus (Дзяржаўны герб Рэспублікі Беларусь Государственный герб Республики Беларусь which A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history traditions and struggles of its people recognized either by a nation's The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova My Belarusy ( Belarusian: Мы беларусы Russian Мы белорусы "We Belarusians" is the unofficial title of the National anthem Transliteration is the practice of Transcribing a Word or text written in one Writing system into another writing system or system of rules for such practice Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook Population 10293011 (July 2006 est Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages A demonym or gentilic is a word that denotes the members of a People or the inhabitants of a place Belarusians or Belorussians (Беларусы Biełarusy previously also spelled Belarussians, Byelorussians and Belorusians, also Belarusians or Belorussians (Беларусы Biełarusy previously also spelled Belarussians, Byelorussians and Belorusians, also For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A presidential system is a System of government where an executive branch exists and presides (hence the term separately from the Legislature The office of President of Belarus (Прэзідэнт Рэспублікі Беларусь Президент Республики Беларусь is the Head of state Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр List of Heads of Government of Belarus (1918-Present Belarusian National Republic (1918-1920 Chairmen of the People's Secretariat Sergey Sidorsky ( Belarusian: Сяргей Сідорскі (Syarhey Sidorski/Siarhiej Sidorski sʲar'ʝej sʲi'dorsci (born March 13 1954 in Gomel Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Events 274 - Roman Emperor Aurelian Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Area is a Quantity expressing the two- Dimensional size of a defined part of a Surface, typically a region bounded by a closed Curve. To help compare Orders of magnitude of different geographical regions we list here Surface areas between 100000 km² and 1000000 km² This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a Fraction of 100 ( per cent meaning "per hundred" 830 km²)1 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2008 estimate | 9,689,800[1] (86th) | ||||
| - | 1999 census | 10,045,200 | ||||
| - | Density | 49/km² (142nd) 127/sq mi | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2008 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $115,027 billion (58th) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $11,991 (65th) | ||||
| Gini (2002) | 29. In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume List of countries and dependencies by Population density in inhabitants/km² The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP at Purchasing power parity (PPP Per capita The Gini coefficient is a measure of statistical dispersion most prominently used as a measure of inequality of income distribution or inequality of wealth 7 (low) | |||||
| HDI (2005) | ▲ 0. The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP 804 (high) (64th) | |||||
| Currency | rouble (BYR) | |||||
| Time zone | EET (UTC+2) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | EEST (UTC+3) | ||||
| Internet TLD | .by | |||||
| Calling code | +375 | |||||
| 1 | FAO's Information System on Water and Agriculture. This is a list of countries by Human Development Index as included in the United Nations Development Program 's Human Development Report 2007 A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The ruble (рубель plural forms рублі and рублёў is the Currency of Belarus. ISO 4217 is the International standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies established Eastern European Time ( EET) is one of the names of UTC+2 Time zone, 2 hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. Daylight saving time ( DST Eastern European Summer Time ( EEST) is one of the names of UTC+3 Time zone, 3 hours ahead of Coordinated Universal Time. A country This is a list of country calling codes defined by ITU-T recommendation E FAO. Retrieved on 2008-04-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1581 - Francis Drake completes a circumnavigation of the world and is knighted by Elizabeth I. | |||||
Belarus (IPA: /ˈbɛləruːs/) (Belarusian and Russian: Беларусь, transliteration: Byelarus’, Polish: Białoruś listen ) is a landlocked country in Eastern Europe,[2] that Russia borders to the north and east, Ukraine to the south, Poland to the west, and Lithuania and Latvia to the north. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The BGN/PCGN romanization system for Belarusian is a method for Romanization of Cyrillic Belarusian texts that is their Transliteration into Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. A landlocked country is commonly defined as one enclosed or nearly enclosed by land Eastern Europe is a general term that refers to the Geopolitical region encompassing the easternmost part of the European continent. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Its capital is Minsk; other major cities include Brest, Grodno, Gomel, Mogilev and Vitebsk. Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers Gomel (ˈɡoʊmel also Homel, Homiel (Гомель ˈɣomʲelʲ In the 19th century Jewish residents comprised more than 50% of the city's total population Vitebsk, also known as Vitsyebsk ( Belarusian: Ві́цебск 'vʲitsʲepsk Russian: Ви́тебск Vitebsk A third of the country is forested, and agriculture and manufacturing are its strongest economic sectors.
Until the 20th century, the Belarusians lacked the opportunity to evolve a distinctive national identity, since the lands of modern-day Belarus belonged to several countries, including the Duchy of Polatsk, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Russian Empire. Belarusians or Belorussians (Беларусы Biełarusy previously also spelled Belarussians, Byelorussians and Belorusians, also The Principality of Polotsk, also known as the Kingdom of Polotsk or the Duchy of Polotsk (Полацкае княства Полоцкое княжество The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya After the short-lived Belarusian People's Republic (1918–19), Belarus became a constituent republic of the Soviet Union, the Byelorussian SSR. The Belarusian People's Republic (Белару́ская Наро́дная Рэспу́бліка bʲeɫa'ruskaja na'rodnaja rɛs'publʲika translit The Republics of the Soviet Union were according to the Article 76 of the 1977 Soviet Constitution, Sovereign Soviet Socialist states that had united with other The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (abbreviated as Byelorussian SSR or BSSR) (Беларуская Савецкая Сацыялістычная Рэспубліка
The final unification of Belarusian lands within its modern borders took place in 1939, when the ethnically Belarusian lands that were part of interwar Poland were annexed by the USSR and attached to the Soviet Belarus. The Second Polish Republic or interwar Poland is the Republic of Poland between World War I and World War II. The territory and its nation were devastated in World War II, during which Belarus lost about a quarter of its population and more than half of its economic resources;[3] the republic recovered in the post-war years and became one of the founding members of the United Nations. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The parliament of the republic declared the sovereignty of Belarus on July 27, 1990, and following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Belarus declared independence on August 25, 1991. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) The Soviet Union 's collapse into independent nations began early in 1985 Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Alexander Lukashenko has been the country's president since 1994. Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр During his presidency, Lukashenko has implemented Soviet-era policies, such as state ownership of the economy, despite objections from Western governments. Since 1996, Belarus has been negotiating with Russia to unify into a single state called the Union of Russia and Belarus. The Union of Russia and Belarus (Союз России и Белоруссии СРБ Soyuz Rossii i Byelorussii SRB) officially titled the Union State of Russia
Most of Belarus's population of 9. 85 million reside in the urban areas surrounding Minsk and other oblast (regional) capitals. Oblast (во́бласць oblast о́бласт oblast о́бласть област/ oblast; oblasť област о́бласть is a type of Administrative division [4] More than 80% of the population are native Belarusians, with sizable minorities of Russians, Ukrainians and Poles. Since a referendum in 1995, the country has had two official languages: Belarusian and Russian. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Constitution of Belarus does not declare an official religion, although the primary religion in the country is Russian Orthodox. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure
Contents |
Etymology
The name Belarus derives from the term White Russia, which first appeared in German and Latin medieval literature. " White Russia " (Белая Русь ~ White Ruthenia is a name that has historically been applied to various regions in Eastern Europe, most often The Latin term for the area was Russia Alba. Historically, the country was referred to in English as White Russia. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States It is also claimed by some people that the correct translation is White Ruthenia (White Rus phonetically), which either describes the area of Eastern Europe populated by Slavic people or the states that occupied the area. Ruthenia is a geographic and culturo-ethnic name applied to the parts of Eastern Europe populated by Eastern Slavic peoples, as well as to the past various [5] The first known use of White Russia to refer to Belarus was in the late-16th century by Englishman Sir Jerome Horsey. Sir Jerome Horsey (born about 1550 died 1626 of Great Kimble Buckinghamshire was an English Explorer, Diplomat and Politician in the 16th and [6] During the 17th century, Russian tsars used White Rus', asserting that they were trying to recapture their heritage from the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. Ruthenia is a geographic and culturo-ethnic name applied to the parts of Eastern Europe populated by Eastern Slavic peoples, as well as to the past various The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic [6]
Belarus was named Belorussia (Russian: Белоруссия) in the days of Imperial Russia, and the Russian tsar was usually styled Tsar of All the Russias—Great, Little, and White. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Great Russia (Великороссия Velikorossiya) is an obsolete name formerly applied to the territories of "Russia proper" the land that formed the core Little Russia, sometimes Little or Lesser Rus’ ( Malorossiya; Mala Rus’) was the name applied to parts of the territory of modern-day " White Russia " (Белая Русь ~ White Ruthenia is a name that has historically been applied to various regions in Eastern Europe, most often Belorussia was the only Russian language name of the country (its names in other languages such as English being based on the Russian form) until 1991, when the Supreme Soviet of the Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic decreed by law that the new independent republic should be called Belarus (Беларусь) in Russian and in all other language transcriptions of its name. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Верхо́вный Сове́т СССР Verkhóvnyj Sovét SSSR) was the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (abbreviated as Byelorussian SSR or BSSR) (Беларуская Савецкая Сацыялістычная Рэспубліка The change was made to reflect adequately the Belarusian language form of the name. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova [7] Accordingly, the name Belorussia was replaced by Belarus in English, and, to some extent, in Russian (although the traditional name still persists in that language as well); likewise, the adjective Belorussian or Byelorussian was replaced by Belarusian in English (though Russian has not developed a new adjective). Some Belarusians object to the name Belorussia as an unwelcome reminder of the days under Russian and Soviet rule. [8] However, most residents of the country do not mind it being called Byelorussiya in Russian (which is, actually, the most widely spoken language there) – it is evidenced by the fact that several popular newspapers published locally still retain the traditional name of the country in Russian in their names (e. g. Komsomolskaya Pravda v Byelorussii, which is the localised publication of a popular Russian tabloid, and Sovetskaya Byelorussiya). Officially, the full name of the country is Republic of Belarus (Рэспубліка Беларусь, Республика Беларусь, Respublika Byelarus'). [9] listen
History
The area of modern-day Belarus was first settled by Slavic tribes in the 6th century. This article describes the history of Belarus. The Belarusian ethnos is traced at least as far in time as other East Slavs. The Mirsky Castle Complex (Мірскі замак Мирский замок is a UNESCO World Heritage site in Belarus located in the town Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic They gradually came into contact with the Varangians, a band of warriors consisting of Scandinavians and Slavs from the Baltics. The Varangians or Varyags ( Old Norse: Væringjar Greek: Βάραγγοι Βαριάγοι Váraggoi / Varyágoi, Ukrainian Terminology and usage As a cultural term "Scandinavia" has no official definition and is subject to usage by those who identify with the culture in question as well Baltic Seven Islandsgif|right|thumb|330px|A contemporary transnational Euroregion encompasses the islands of the Baltic countries [10] Though defeated and briefly exiled by the local population, the Varangians were later asked to return[10] and helped to form a polity—commonly referred to as the Kievan Rus'—in exchange for tribute. Polity ( Greek: Πολιτεία or Πολίτευμα transliterated as Politeía or Políteuma) was originally a term used in Ancient Greece Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan The Kievan Rus' state began in about 862 at the present-day city of Novgorod. Veliky Novgorod (Вели́кий Но́вгород is the foremost historic city of North-Western Russia and the administrative center of Novgorod [11]
Upon the death of Kievan Rus' ruler, Prince Yaroslav the Wise, the state split into independent principalities. Yaroslav I the Wise (c 978 in Kiev - February 20, 1054 in Kiev) ( East Slavic: Ярослав Мудрый Christian name [12] These Ruthenian principalities were badly affected by a Mongol invasion in the 13th century, and many were later incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The Mongol invasion of Rus' was heralded by the Battle of the Kalka River in 1223 between Subutai 's reconnaissance unit and the combined force The Grand Duchy of Lithuania (Lietuvos Didžioji Kunigaikštystė old literary Lithuanian Didi Kunigiste Letuvos, Ruthenian: Wialikaje Kniastwa Litowskaje [13] Of all the principalities held by the Duchy, nine were settled by ancestors of the Belarusian people. [14] During this time, the Duchy was involved in several military campaigns, including fighting on the side of Poland against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Grunwald in 1410. The Teutonic Order is a German Roman Catholic religious order. The Battle of Grunwald (or 1st Battle of Tannenberg) took place on 15 July 1410 with the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, led by The joint victory allowed the Duchy to control the northwestern border lands of Eastern Europe. [15]
On February 2, 1386, the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland were joined in a personal union through a marriage of their rulers. Events 962 - Translatio imperii: Pope John XII crowns Otto I Holy Roman Emperor, the first Holy Roman Emperor The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons was the Polish state created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to A personal union is the combination by which two different States are governed by the same Monarch, while their boundaries their laws and their interests remain distinct The Union of Krewo, also known as Krėva Act (other names Union of Krevo, Act of Kreva) was a set of promises of Jogaila, Grand Duke [16] This union set in motion the developments that eventually resulted in the formation of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created in 1569. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, officially the Commonwealth of the Crown of the Polish Kingdom and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania also known as the Most Serene Republic The Union of Lublin (Liublino unija Belarusian: Лю́блінская ву́нія Polish: Unia The Russians, led by Tsar Ivan the III, began military conquests in 1486 in an attempt to gain the Kievan Rus' lands, specifically Belarus and Ukraine. The Grand Duchy of Moscow (Великое княжество Московское was a medieval Russian polity centered on Moscow between 1340 and Ivan III Vasilevich (Иван III Васильевич ( 22 January 1440, Moscow – 27 October 1505, Moscow also known as Ivan the Great [17] The union between Poland and Lithuania ended in 1795, and the commonwealth was partitioned by Imperial Russia, Prussia, and Austria, dividing Belarus. The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich [18] Belarusian territories were acquired by the Russian Empire during the reign of Catherine II[19] and held until their occupation by Germany during World War I. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Catherine II, called Catherine the Great (Екатерина II Великая Yekaterina II Velikaya;) reigned as Empress of Russia for 34 years The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All [20]
During the negotiations of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Belarus first declared independence on 25 March 1918, forming the Belarusian People's Republic. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9 1918, a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers. Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Belarusian People's Republic (Белару́ская Наро́дная Рэспу́бліка bʲeɫa'ruskaja na'rodnaja rɛs'publʲika translit The Germans supported the BPR, which lasted for about 10 months. [21] Soon after the Germans were defeated, the BPR fell under the influence of the Bolsheviks and the Red Army and became the Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1919. The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (abbreviated as Byelorussian SSR or BSSR) (Беларуская Савецкая Сацыялістычная Рэспубліка [21] After Russian occupation of eastern and northern Lithuania, it was merged into the Lithuanian-Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic. Byelorussian lands were then split between Poland and the Soviets after the Polish-Soviet War ended in 1921, and the recreated Byelorussian SSR became a founding member of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in 1922. A soviet (сове́т, "council" originally was a workers' local council in late Imperial Russia. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 [21]
In September 1939, as a result of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, the Soviet Union invaded Poland and annexed its eastern lands, including most of Polish-held Byelorussian land. The 1939 Soviet invasion of Poland was a military operation that started without a formal declaration of war on 17 September 1939 during the early stages of World War II, sixteen After the Soviet invasion of Poland following the corresponding German invasion that marked the start of World War II in 1939 the Soviet Union annexed [22] Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Operation Barbarossa ( Unternehmen Barbarossa) was the Codename for Nazi Germany 's invasion of the Soviet Union during World War II Byelorussia was the hardest hit Soviet Republic in the war and remained in Nazi hands until 1944. The occupation of Belarus by Nazi Germany occurred as part of the German invasion of the Soviet Union on June 22 1941 ( Operation Barbarossa During that time, Germany destroyed 209 out of 290 cities in the republic, 85% of the republic's industry, and more than one million buildings, while causing human losses estimated between two and three million (about a quarter to one-third of the total population). [3] The Jewish population of Byelorussia was devastated during The Holocaust and never recovered. Prior to World War II, Jews were the third largest ethnic group in Belarus, and comprised more than 40% of the population in cities and towns The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as [23] The population of Belarus did not regain its pre-war level until 1971. [23] After the war ended, Byelorussia was among the 51 founding countries of the United Nations Charter in 1945 and began rebuilding the Soviet Republic. The United Nations Charter is the Treaty that forms and establishes the International organization called the United Nations. During this time, the Byelorussian SSR became a major center of manufacturing in the western region of the USSR, increasing jobs and bringing an influx of ethnic Russians into the republic. The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries [24] The borders of Byelorussian SSR and Poland were redrawn to a point known as the Curzon Line. The Curzon Line was a Demarcation line proposed in 1920 by the British Foreign Secretary George Nathaniel Curzon 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston [22]
Joseph Stalin implemented a policy of Sovietization to isolate the Byelorussian SSR from Western influences. The Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic (abbreviated as Byelorussian SSR or BSSR) (Беларуская Савецкая Сацыялістычная Рэспубліка Joseph Stalin ( ნამდვილი გვარი ჯუღაშვილი|Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili; March 5 1953 was General Secretary of the Communist Party Sovietization is term that may be used with two distinct (but related meanings the adoption of a political system based on the model of soviets (workers' councils The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings [23] This policy involved sending Russians from various parts of the Soviet Union and placing them in key positions in the Byelorussian SSR government. The official use of the Belarusian language and other cultural aspects were limited by Moscow. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova The Political system of the Soviet Union was characterized by the superior role of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU the only party permitted by After Stalin died in 1953, successor Nikita Khrushchev continued this program, stating, "The sooner we all start speaking Russian, the faster we shall build communism". Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev (April 17 1894 – September 11 1971 served as First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964 following Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based [23] When Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev began pushing through his reform plan, the Belarusian people delivered a petition to him in December 1986 explaining the loss of their culture. Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachev ( Mikhail Sergeyevich Gorbachyov;; born 2 March 1931 in Privolnoye Stavropol Krai) is a Russian politician (Перестройка) is the Russian term (now used in English for the economic reforms introduced in June 1987 by the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev Chronological overview Belarusian culture is the product of a millennium of development under the impact of a number of diverse factors Earlier that year, Byelorussian SSR was exposed to nuclear fallout from the explosion at the Chernobyl power plant in neighboring Ukrainian SSR. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. The Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic or the Ukrainian SSR was one of the 15 constituent republics that made up the Former Soviet Union from its [25] In June 1988 at the rural site of Kurapaty near Minsk, archaeologist Zianon Pazniak, the leader of Christian Conservative Party of the BPF, discovered mass graves which contained about 250,000 bodies of victims executed in 1941. Kurapaty (Курапаты is a wooded area on the outskirts of Minsk, Belarus, in which a vast number of people were executed between 1937 and 1941 by the Dr Zianon Paźniak ( Belarusian: Зянон Пазьняк, * April 24, 1944) is a famous Belarusian nationalist politician and public The Conservative Christian Party of the Belarusian People's Front (Кансэрватыўна-Хрысціянская Партыя - БНФ Kanservatyŭna-Chryścijanskaja Partyja A mass grave is a grave containing multiple usually unidentified human corpses [25] Some nationalists contend that this discovery is proof that the Soviet government was trying to erase the Belarusian people, causing Belarusian nationalists to seek independence. [26]
Two years later, in March 1990, elections for seats in the Supreme Soviet of the Byelorussian SSR took place. University of Warsaw (Uniwersytet Warszawski is the largest University in Poland, ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the second best Polish The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Верхо́вный Сове́т СССР Verkhóvnyj Sovét SSSR) was the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in Though the pro-independence Belarusian Popular Front took only 10% of the seats, the populace was content with the selection of the delegates. Belarusian (National People's Front "Revival" or BPF ( Belarusian: Беларускі Народны Фронт "Адраджэньне" БНФ [27] Belarus declared itself sovereign on July 27, 1990, by issuing the Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1990 ( MCMXC) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1990 Gregorian calendar) The Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic was a formal document issued by the Supreme Soviet of Belarus to assert their independence With the support of the Communist Party, the country's name was changed to the Republic of Belarus on August 25, 1991. Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. [27] Stanislav Shushkevich, the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of Belarus, met with Boris Yeltsin of Russia and Leonid Kravchuk of Ukraine on December 8, 1991, in Belavezhskaya Pushcha to formally declare the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the formation of the Commonwealth of Independent States. Stanislau Stanislavavich Shushkevich ( Stanisłaŭ Stanisłavavič Šuškievič, Belarusian: Станісла́ў Станісла́вавіч Шушке́віч (b The Supreme Soviet of the USSR (Верхо́вный Сове́т СССР Verkhóvnyj Sovét SSSR) was the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union in Boris Nikolayevich Yeltsin () (1 February 1931 23 April 2007 was the first President of the Russian Federation, serving from 1991 to 1999 For hockey player see Igor Kravchuk Leonid Makarovych Kravchuk (Леонід Макарович Кравчук born 10 January 1934) is a Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Events 1609 - Biblioteca Ambrosiana opens its reading room the second public library of Europe. Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Białowieża Primaeval Forest, known as Belaveskaya Pushcha (Белавеская пушча or Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus [27] A national constitution was adopted in March 1994, in which the functions of prime minister was given to the president. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate The office of President of Belarus (Прэзідэнт Рэспублікі Беларусь Президент Республики Беларусь is the Head of state
Two-round elections for the presidency (24 June 1994 and 10 July 1994)[28] resulted in the politically unknown Alexander Lukashenko winning more than 45 % of the vote in the first round and 80 %[27] in the second round, beating Vyacheslav Kebich who got 14 %. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia. Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр Vyachaslau Frantsavich Kebich (Вячаслаў Францавіч Кебіч Wiaczaslaw Francawicz Kiebicz vʲatʂa'sɫau̯ 'cebʲitʂ born June 10, 1936) was Lukashenko was reelected in 2001 and in 2006. The 2001 Belarusian presidential elections were held on September 9 2001 with three candidates competing The elections for the position of President of Belarus took place on March 19 2006.
Politics
Belarus is a presidential republic, governed by a president and the National Assembly. The politics of Belarus takes place in a framework of a presidential Republic, whereby the President of Belarus is the Head of Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers A presidential system is a System of government where an executive branch exists and presides (hence the term separately from the Legislature A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its History of Belarusian states can be traced far to Principality of Polotsk. The National Assembly of the Republic of Belarus is the Bicameral Parliament that governs the Eastern European country of Belarus. In accordance with the Constitution, The President is elected once in five years. The National Assembly is a bicameral parliament comprising the 110-member House of Representatives (the lower house) and the 64-member Council of the Republic (the upper house). In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral Under the 1996 Constitution, the House of Representatives (Палата Прадстаўнікоў Palata Pradstawnikow, Палата Представителей The Council of the Republic is the Upper house in Belarus ' Bicameral parliament the National Assembly. The House of Representatives has the power to appoint the prime minister, make constitutional amendments, call for a vote of confidence on the prime minister, and make suggestions on foreign and domestic policy. List of Heads of Government of Belarus (1918-Present Belarusian National Republic (1918-1920 Chairmen of the People's Secretariat A Motion of Confidence is a motion of support proposed by a government in a Parliament or other assembly of elected representatives to give members of parliament (or The Council of the Republic has the power to select various government officials, conduct an impeachment trial of the president, and accept or reject the bills passed by the House of Representatives. Each chamber has the ability to veto any law passed by local officials if it is contrary to the Constitution of Belarus. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate [29] Since 1994, Alexander Lukashenko has been the president of Belarus. Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр The government includes a Council of Ministers, headed by the prime minister. The members of this council need not be members of the legislature and are appointed by the president. The judiciary comprises the Supreme Court and specialized courts such as the Constitutional Court, which deals with specific issues related to constitutional and business law. The Supreme Court of the Republic of Belarus is the highest-tier court inside of Belarus and acts as the final "court of review The Constitutional Court of Belarus is one of the top-tier courts in the Eastern European country The judges of national courts are appointed by the president and confirmed by the Council of the Republic. For criminal cases, the highest court of appeal is the Supreme Court. The Belarusian Constitution forbids the use of special extra-judicial courts. [29]
.jpg/180px-Belarus-Minsk-House_of_Government_and_Vladimir_Lenin_Monument_(perspective_corrected).jpg)
As of 2007, 98 of the 110 members the House of Representatives are not affiliated with any political party and the remaining twelve members, eight belong to the Communist Party of Belarus, three to the Agrarian Party of Belarus, and one to the Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus, most of the non-partisans represents a wide scope of social organizations namely worker´s collectives, public associations and civil society organizations. The Communist Party of Belarus (Камуністы́чная па́ртыя Белару́сі Kamunistychnaya Partyia Belarusi; Коммунистическая партия The Agrarian Party of Belarus ( Belarusian: Агра́рная па́ртыя Белару́сі Agrarnaya Partya Belarusi) is a Political party in The Liberal Democratic Party of Belarus ( Liberalna-Demokratychnaya Partya Belarusi) is a Political party in Belarus that supports the government of president On the other hand, neither the pro-Lukashenko parties, such as the Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party and the Republican Party of Labor and Justice, nor the People's Coalition 5 Plus opposition parties, such as the Belarusian People's Front and the United Civil Party of Belarus, won any seats in the 2004 elections. The Belarusian Socialist Sporting Party ( Belaruskaya Satsyalistychnaya-Spartynaya Partya) is a Political party in Belarus, that supports the government The Republican Party of Labour and Juctice ( Respublikanskaya Partya Pratsy y Spravyadivasti) is a Political party in Belarus, that supports the government The People's Coalition 5 Plus ( Narodnaja Kaalicyja Piaciorka Plus) is a political alliance in Belarus, that opposes the regime of president Alexander Belarusian (National People's Front "Revival" or BPF ( Belarusian: Беларускі Народны Фронт "Адраджэньне" БНФ The United Civic Party of Belarus (Аб'ядна́ная грамадзя́нская па́ртыя Белару́сі Abjadnanaja hramadzianskaja partyja Biełarusi) Belarus elects on national level a Head of state - the President - and a Legislature. Organizations such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) declared the election "un-free" because of the opposition parties' poor results and media bias in favor of the government. [30] In the country's 2006 presidential election, Lukashenko was opposed by Alaksandar Milinkievič, a candidate representing a coalition of opposition parties, and by Alaksandar Kazulin of the Social Democrats. The elections for the position of President of Belarus took place on March 19 2006. Alaksandar Milinkievič (also Alexander Milinkevich; Аляксандар Мілінкевіч in Belarusian, born 25 July 1947) is Alaksandr Kazulin (Аляксандр Уладзіслававіч Казулін born 25 November 1955, is the leader of the Belarusian Social Democratic Party Kazulin was detained and beaten by police during protests surrounding the All Belarusian People's Assembly. The All Belarusian People's Assembly ( Усебеларускі народны сход, Всебелорусскае народное собрание) is a general Lukashenko won the election with 80% of the vote, but the OSCE and other organizations called the election unfair. [31]
Lukashenko has described himself as having an "authoritarian ruling style". [32] Western countries have described Belarus under Lukashenko as a dictatorship; the government has accused the same Western powers of trying to oust Lukashenko. [33] The Council of Europe has barred Belarus from EU membership since 1997 for undemocratic voting and election irregularities in the November 1996 constitutional referendum and parliament by-elections. The Council of Europe (Conseil de l'Europe is the oldest International organisation working towards European integration, being founded in 1949 The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in A by-election or bye-election (called special election in the United States) is an Election held to fill a political office that has become vacant [34] The Belarusian government is also criticized for human rights violations and its actions against non-governmental organizations, independent journalists, national minorities, and opposition politicians. Human rights refers to the "basic Rights and freedoms to which all humans are entitled [35][36] Belarus is the only nation in Europe that retains the death penalty for certain crimes during times of peace and war. The provision for Capital Punishment in Belarus has been a part of this country since gaining independence from the Soviet Union. [37] In testimony to the U. S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice labeled Belarus, among six nations, as part of the "outposts of tyranny". Condoleezza Rice (born November 14 1954 is the 66th United States Outposts of tyranny was a term used in 2005 by United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice and subsequently by others in the U [38] In response, the Belarusian government called the assessment "quite far from reality". [39]
Foreign relations and military
Belarus and Russia have been close trading partners and diplomatic allies since the breakup of the Soviet Union. The Byelorussian SSR was one of only two Soviet republics to be separate members of the United Nations (the other being the Ukrainian SSR) History On September 20, 1991 the Supreme Soviet of Belarus passed resolution "On the formation of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus" Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (Аляксандр Рыгоравіч Лукашэнка Aljaksandar Ryhoravič Lukašenka/Alyaksandar Ryhoravich Lukashenka; Александр Belarus is dependent on Russia for imports of raw materials and for its export market. [40] The Union of Russia and Belarus, a supranational confederation, was established in a 1996–99 series of treaties that called for monetary union, equal rights, single citizenship, and a common foreign and defense policy. The Union of Russia and Belarus (Союз России и Белоруссии СРБ Soyuz Rossii i Byelorussii SRB) officially titled the Union State of Russia [40] Although the future of the Union was in doubt because of Belarus' repeated delays of monetary union, the lack of a referendum date for the draft constitution, and a 2006–07 dispute about petroleum trade. The Russia-Belarus energy dispute began when Russian State-owned gas supplier Gazprom demanded an increase in gas prices paid by Belarus [40] On December 11, 2007, reports emerged that a framework for the new state was discussed between both countries. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. [41] On May 27, 2008, Belarusian President Lukashenko said that he had named Russian Prime Minister Vladimir Putin the "prime minister" of the Russia-Belarus alliance. Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin (; born 7 October 1952 in Leningrad, USSR; now Saint Petersburg, Russia was the second President of Russia The meaning of the move was not immediately clear; however, there is speculation that Putin may become president of a unified state of Russia and Belarus after having stepped down as Russian president in May 2008. [42]
Belarus was a founder member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS); however, recently other CIS members have questioned the effectiveness of the organization. [43] Belarus has trade agreements with several European Union member states (despite other member states' travel ban on Lukashenko and top officials),[44] as well as with its neighbors Lithuania, Poland and Latvia. [45]
Bilateral relations with the United States are strained because of the United States State Department's support for various pro-democracy NGOs and because the Belarusian government made it harder for US-based organizations to operate within the country. [46] The 2004 US Belarus Democracy Act continued this trend, authorizing funding for pro-democracy Belarusian NGOs and forbidding loans to the Belarusian government except for humanitarian purposes. The Belarus Democracy Act of 2004 is a United States federal law that authorizes assistance for political parties, Non-governmental organizations and independent [47] Despite this, the two nations cooperate on intellectual property protection, prevention of human trafficking and technology crime, and disaster relief. [48]
Belarus has increased cooperation with China, strengthened by the visit of President Lukashenko to China in October 2005. [49] Belarus has strong ties with Syria,[50] which President Lukashenko considers a key partner in the Middle East. [51] In addition to the CIS, Belarus has membership in the Eurasian Economic Community and the Collective Security Treaty Organization. The Eurasian Economic Community ( EurAsEC or EAEC or EEC) was put into motion on 10 October 2000 when Belarus, [45] Belarus has been a member of the international Non-Aligned Movement since 1998[52] and a member of the United Nations since its founding in 1945. The Non-Aligned Movement ( NAM) is an International organization of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security [53]
The Armed Forces of Belarus has three branches: the Army, the Air Force, and the Ministry of Defense joint staff. History On September 20, 1991 the Supreme Soviet of Belarus passed resolution "On the formation of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Belarus" The Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus (Russian Министерство обороны Республики Беларусь Belarusian Мiнiстэрства абароны Colonel-General Leonid Maltsev heads the Ministry of Defense,[54] and Alexander Lukashenko (as president) serves as Commander-in-Chief. [55] The Armed Forces was formed in 1992 using parts of the former Soviet Armed Forces on the new republic's territory. The Soviet Armed Forces refers to the armed forces of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics from its establishment during the Russian Civil War in 1918 by the The transformation of the ex-Soviet forces into the Armed Forces of Belarus, which was completed in 1997, reduced the number of its soldiers by 30,000 and restructured its leadership and military formations. [56] Most of Belarus's service members are conscripts, who serve for 12 months if they have higher education or 18 months if they do not. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority [57] However, demographic decreases in the Belarusians of conscription age have increased the importance of contract soldiers, who numbered 12,000 as of 2001. [58] In 2005, about 1. 4% of Belarus's gross domestic product was devoted to military expenditures. [59] Belarus has not expressed a desire to join NATO but has participated in the Individual Partnership Program since 1997. The North Atlantic Treaty [60]
Provinces and districts
Belarus is divided into six voblasts, or provinces, which are named after the cities that serve as their administrative centers. At the top level of administration the Eastern European country of Belarus is divided into six voblasti ' (or voblastsi, meaning "provinces" Oblast (во́бласць oblast о́бласт oblast о́бласть област/ oblast; oblasť област о́бласть is a type of Administrative division [61] Each voblast has a provincial legislative authority, called an oblsovet, which is elected by the voblast's residents, and a provincial executive authority called a voblast administration, whose leader is appointed by the president. [62] Voblasts are further subdivided into raions (commonly translated as districts or regions). For the manufactured regenerated fiber see Rayon A raion (or rayon) (райо́н ra'jon rayon раён რაიონი [61] As with voblasts, each raion has its own legislative authority (raisovet, or raion council) elected by its residents, and an executive authority (raion administration) appointed by higher executive powers. As of 2002, there are six voblasts, 118 raions, 102 towns and 108 urbanized settlements. [63] Minsk is given a special status, due to the city serving as the national capital. Minsk City is run by an executive committee and granted a charter of self-rule by the national government. [64]
Voblasts (with administrative centers):
- Brest Voblast (Brest)
- Homel Voblast (Homel)
- Hrodna Voblast (Hrodna)
- Mahilyow Voblast (Mahilyow)
- Minsk Voblast (Minsk)
- Vitsebsk Voblast (Vitsebsk)
Special administrative district:
- Minsk city
Geography
Belarus is landlocked, relatively flat, and contains large tracts of marshy land. Brest Voblast (Province or Brest Oblast (Брэ́сцкая во́бласць Brestskaya voblasts; Бре́стская о́бласть Brestskaya Oblast Homiel Voblast or Gomel Oblast (Го́мельская во́бласць translit Gomel (ˈɡoʊmel also Homel, Homiel (Гомель ˈɣomʲelʲ In the 19th century Jewish residents comprised more than 50% of the city's total population Hrodna Voblast or Grodno Oblast (Гродзенская вобласць Гродненская область is a Voblast ( Province) in northwestern Mahilyow Voblasts (Province or Mogilev Oblast (Магілёўская во́бласць Mahilyowskaya Voblasts; Могилёвская о́бласть Minsk Voblast (Province or Minsk Oblast (Мі́нская во́бласць 'mʲinskaja 'vobɫasʲtsʲ Минская о́бласть Minskaya Oblast) is Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers Vitsebsk Voblast (Province or Vitebsk Oblast (Ві́цебская во́бласць Vitsebskaya Voblast; Ви́тебская о́бласть Vitebskaya Vitebsk, also known as Vitsyebsk ( Belarusian: Ві́цебск 'vʲitsʲepsk Russian: Ви́тебск Vitebsk Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers Belarus, a generally flat country (the average elevation is 162 meters above sea level without natural borders occupies an area of 207600 square kilometers or slightly smaller A landlocked country is commonly defined as one enclosed or nearly enclosed by land In Geography, a marsh, or morass, is a type of Wetland which is subject [65] According to a 1994 estimate by the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization, 34% of Belarus is covered by forests. [66] Many streams and 11,000 lakes are found in Belarus. [65] Three major rivers run through the country: the Neman, the Pripyat, and the Dnepr. "Nieman" and "Niemen" redirects here For other uses see Neman and Nieman (disambiguation. The Pripyat River (Прип’ять 'prɨpjatʲ Прыпяць Prypiać 'prɨpʲatsʲ Prypeć 'prɨpɛtsʲ Припять 'pripjatʲ is a river in Eastern Europe, of For the rocket see Dnepr rocket. For other uses see Dnieper (disambiguation. The Neman flows westward towards the Baltic sea and the Pripyat flows eastward to the Dnepr; the Dnepr flows southward towards the Black Sea. The Black Sea is an inland Sea bounded by southeastern Europe, the Caucasus and the Anatolian peninsula ( Turkey [66] Belarus's highest point is Dzyarzhynskaya Hara (Dzyarzhynsk Hill) at 345 metres (1,130 ft), and its lowest point is on the Neman River at 90 metres (300 ft). Dzyarzhynskaya Hara ( Belarusian Гара Дзяржынская dzʲar'ʐɨnskaja is the highest point in Belarus. [65] The average elevation of Belarus is 525 feet (160 m) above sea level. [67] The climate ranges from harsh winters, with average January temperatures at −6 °C (21. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. 2 °F), to cool and moist summers with the average temperature of 18 °C (64 °F). Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 [68] Belarus experiences an average rainfall of 550 to 700 millimeters (21. 7 to 27. 5 inches). [68] The country experiences a yearly transition from a continental climate to a maritime climate. Continental climate is a Climate that is characterized by Winter Temperatures cold enough to support a fixed period of Snow cover each Year An oceanic climate (also called marine west coast climate and maritime climate) is the Climate typically found along the west coasts at the middle latitudes [65]
Belarus's natural resources include peat deposits, small quantities of oil and natural gas, granite, dolomite (limestone), marl, chalk, sand, gravel, and clay. Peat is an accumulation of partially Decayed Vegetation matter. Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 Marl or Marlstone is a Calcium carbonate or lime -rich mud or Mudstone which contains variable amounts of Clays and Aragonite [65] About 70% of the radiation from neighboring Ukraine's 1986 Chernobyl nuclear disaster entered Belarusian territory, and as of 2005 about a fifth of Belarusian land (principally farmland and forests in the southeastern provinces) continues to be affected by radiation fallout. The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. [69] The United Nations and other agencies have aimed to reduce the level of radiation in affected areas, especially through the use of caesium binders and rapeseed cultivation, which are meant to decrease soil levels of caesium-137. Rapeseed ( Brassica napus) also known as rape, oilseed rape, rapa, rapaseed and (in the case of one particular group of Caesium-137 (also spelled cesium is a radioactive Isotope of Caesium which is formed mainly by Nuclear fission. [70][71]
Belarus is bordered by Latvia on the north, Lithuania on the northwest, Poland on the west, Russia on the north and east and Ukraine on the south. Treaties in 1995 and 1996 demarcated Belarus's borders with Latvia and Lithuania, but Belarus failed to ratify a 1997 treaty establishing the Belarus-Ukraine border. [72] Belarus and Lithuania ratified final border demarcation documents in February 2007. [73]
Economy
Most of the Belarusian economy remains state-controlled, as in Soviet times. Recently the Belarusian economy has shifted into sustained high gear along with Ukraine Russia and many other Commonwealth of Independent States economies Recently the Belarusian economy has shifted into sustained high gear along with Ukraine Russia and many other Commonwealth of Independent States economies The public sector is the part of economic and administrative life that deals with the delivery of goods and services by and for the Government, whether national Regional [40] Thus, 51. 2% of Belarusians are employed by state-controlled companies, 47. 4% are employed by private Belarusian companies (of which 5. 7% are partially foreign-owned), and 1. 4% are employed by foreign companies. [74] The country relies on imports such as oil from Russia[75][76] Important agricultural products include potatoes and cattle byproducts, such as meat. [77] As of 1994, the biggest exports of Belarus were heavy machinery(especially tractors), agricultural products, and energy products. [78]
.png/180px-Image-Belarusion_GDP_grow_(1995-~2008).png)
Historically important branches of industry include textiles and wood processing. [79] As of the 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union, Belarus was one of the world's most industrially developed states by percentage of gross domestic product (GDP) as well as the richest CIS state. [80] Economically, Belarus involved itself in the CIS, Eurasian Economic Community, and Union with Russia. The Eurasian Economic Community ( EurAsEC or EAEC or EEC) was put into motion on 10 October 2000 when Belarus, The Union of Russia and Belarus (Союз России и Белоруссии СРБ Soyuz Rossii i Byelorussii SRB) officially titled the Union State of Russia During the 1990s, however, industrial production plunged because of decreases in imported inputs, in investment, and in demand for exports from traditional trading partners. [81] It took until 1996 for the gross domestic product to rise;[82] this coincided with the government putting more emphasis on using the GDP for social welfare and state subsidies. [82] The GDP for 2006 was US$83. 1 billion in purchasing power parity (PPP) dollars (estimate), or about $8,100 per capita. The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. [77] In 2005, the gross domestic product increased by about 9. 9%, with the inflation rate averaging about 9. 5%. [77]
Belarus's largest trading partner is Russia, accounting for nearly half of total trade in 2006. [83] As of 2006, the European Union was Belarus's next largest trading partner, with which nearly a third of trade was conducted. [84][83] Because of its failure to protect labor rights, however, Belarus lost its E. U. Generalized System of Preferences status on June 21, 2007, which raised tariff rates to their prior most-favored nation levels. The Generalized System of Preferences, or GSP, is a formal system of exemption from the more general rules of the World Trade Organization (WTO (formerly the Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Most favoured nation (MFN also called Normal Trade Relations in the United States, is a status awarded by one Nation to another in International [84] Belarus has applied to become a member of the World Trade Organization since 1993. [85]
The labor force consists of more than four million people, among whom women hold slightly more jobs than men. [86] In 2005, nearly a quarter of the population was employed in industrial factories. [86] Employment is also high in agriculture, manufacturing sales, trading goods, and education. The unemployment rate, according to Belarusian government statistics, was about 1. 5% in 2005. [86] The number of unemployed persons totaled 679,000 of whom about two-thirds are women. [86] The rate of unemployment has been decreasing since 2003, and the overall rate has been lower since statistics were first compiled in 1995. [86]
The currency of Belarus is the Belarusian ruble (BYR). The ruble (рубель plural forms рублі and рублёў is the Currency of Belarus. The ruble (рубель plural forms рублі and рублёў is the Currency of Belarus. The currency was introduced in May 1992, replacing the Soviet ruble. The ruble or rouble (рубль see below for other Soviet languages) was the currency of the Soviet Union. The ruble was reintroduced with new values in 2000 and has been in use ever since. [87] As part of the Union of Russia and Belarus, both states have discussed using a single currency along the same lines as the Euro. The Union of Russia and Belarus (Союз России и Белоруссии СРБ Soyuz Rossii i Byelorussii SRB) officially titled the Union State of Russia Please update other articles as well to avoid contradiction within Wikipedia e This has led to the proposal that the Belarusian ruble be discontinued in favor of the Russian ruble (RUB), starting as early as 1 January 2008. The ruble or rouble (рубль rublʹ, plural ru рубли́ rubli; see note on English spelling and Russian plurals with numbers New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common As of August 2007, the National Bank of Belarus is no longer pegging the Belarusian ruble to the Russian ruble. The National Bank of the Republic of Belarus (Национальный банк Республики Беларусь is the Central bank of Belarus, located in the [88] The banking system of Belarus is composed of 30 state-owned banks and one privatized bank. [89]
Demographics
Ethnic Belarusians constitute 81. Demographic data from the CIA World Factbook Population 10293011 (July 2006 est Belarusians or Belorussians (Беларусы Biełarusy previously also spelled Belarussians, Byelorussians and Belorusians, also 2% of Belarus's total population. [90] The next largest ethnic groups are Russians (11. The Russian people (Русские— Russkie) are an East Slavic Ethnic group, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries 4%), Poles (3. The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. 9%), and Ukrainians (2. Ukrainians (Українці Ukrayintsi,) are an East Slavic Ethnic group primarily living in Ukraine, or more broadly— Citizens 4%). [90] Belarus's two official languages are Belarusian and Russian,[91] spoken at home by 36. The Belarusian language, or Belorussian,(беларуская мова BGN/PCGN: byelaruskaya mova, Scientific: belaruskaja mova 7% and 62. 8% of Belarusians, respectively. [92] Minorities also speak Polish, Ukrainian and Eastern Yiddish. Polish ( język polski, polszczyzna) is the Official language of Poland. Ukrainian (in Ukrainian украї́нська мо́ва ukrayins'ka mova,) is a language of the East Slavic subgroup of the Slavic languages. Yiddish dialects are subsets of the major regional branches of the Yiddish language Western Yiddish and Eastern Yiddish [93]
Belarus has a population density of about 50 people per square kilometre (127 per sq mi); 71. 7% of its total population is concentrated in urban areas. [90] Minsk, the nation's capital and largest city, is home to 1,741,400 of Belarus's 9,724,700 residents. Minsk (Мінск mʲinsk Минск mʲinsk is the Capital and largest city in Belarus, situated on the Svislach and Niamiha rivers [90] Gomel, with 481,000 people, is the second largest city and serves as the capital of the Homel Oblast. Gomel (ˈɡoʊmel also Homel, Homiel (Гомель ˈɣomʲelʲ In the 19th century Jewish residents comprised more than 50% of the city's total population Other large cities are Mogilev (365,100), Vitebsk (342,400), Hrodna (314,800) and Brest (298,300). Vitebsk, also known as Vitsyebsk ( Belarusian: Ві́цебск 'vʲitsʲepsk Russian: Ви́тебск Vitebsk [94]
Like many other European countries, Belarus has a negative population growth rate and a negative natural growth rate. In 2007, Belarus's population declined by 0. 41% and its fertility rate was 1. The total fertility rate ( TFR, sometimes also called the fertility rate, period total fertility rate (PTFR or total 22,[90] well below the replacement rate. Sub-replacement fertility is a Total fertility rate that is not high enough to replace an area's population Its net migration rate is +0. Net migration rate is the difference of Immigrants and Emigrants of an area in a period of time divided (usually per 1000 inhabitants (considered on midterm population 38 per 1,000, indicating that Belarus experiences slightly more immigration than emigration. Immigration refers to the movement of people among countries While the movement of people has existed throughout human history at various levels modern immigration implies long-term "Emigrant" redirects here For the Butterflies, see Catopsilia. [90] Its population is also aging. As of 2007, 69. 7% of Belarus's population is aged 14 to 64; 16% is under 14, and 14. 6% is 65 or older; the median age 37. [90] In 2050, however, it is estimated that Belarusians' median age will be 51. [95] There are about 0. 88 males per female in Belarus. [90] The average life expectancy is 68. 7 years (63. 0 years for males and 74. 9 years for females). [90] Over 99% of Belarusians are literate. [90][96]
Belarus has historically been a Russian Orthodox country, with minorities practicing Catholicism, Judaism, and other religions. Polotsk ( Polatsk, По́лацк Полоцк Polockas Połock is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river See also Eastern Orthodox Church Structure and organization The Slavic Orthodox Church is organized in a hierarchical structure As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Belarusians converted to the Russian Orthodox Church after Belarus was annexed by Russia after the partitions of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Belarus's Roman Catholic minority, which makes up perhaps 10% of the country's population and is concentrated in the western part of the country, especially around Hrodna, is made up of a mixture of Belarusians and the country's Polish and Lithuanian minorities. The Polish people, or Poles, (Polacy) are a Western Slavic Ethnic group of Central Europe, living predominantly in Poland. Lithuanians are the Baltic Ethnic group native to Lithuania, where they number a little over 3 million About 1% belong to the Belarusian Greek Catholic Church. The Belarusian Greek Catholic Church (Belaruskaya Hreka-Katalickaya Carkva BHKC) sometimes called in reference to its Byzantine Rite, the Belarusian Byzantine [97] Belarus was a major center of the European Jewish population, with 10% being Jewish. The population of Jews were reduced by war, starvation, and the Holocaust to a tiny minority of about 1% or less. The Holocaust (from the Greek el ''ὁλόκαυστον'' (el-Latn holókauston holos, "completely" and kaustos, "burnt" also known as Emigration from Belarus is a cause for the shrinking number of Jewish residents. [98] According to Article 16 of the Constitution, Belarus has no official religion. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate While the freedom of worship is granted in the same article, religious organizations that are deemed harmful to the government or social order of the country can be prohibited. Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance [99]
Culture
Belarusian literature began with 11th- to 13th century religious writing; the 12th century poetry of Cyril of Turaw is representative. Chronological overview Belarusian culture is the product of a millennium of development under the impact of a number of diverse factors Cyril of Turaŭ (1130 &ndash 1182 (Кіры́ла Ту́раўскі Kiryla Turaŭski was an Orthodox Christian Bishop and Saint in the Orthodox [100] By the 16th century, Polotsk resident Francysk Skaryna translated the Bible into Belarusian. Polotsk ( Polatsk, По́лацк Полоцк Polockas Połock is a historical city in Belarus, situated on the Dvina river Francysk Skaryna (fran'tsɨsk ska'rɨna or Skoryna the first name also spelled as Francis Franciszak Frantsiszak Francisk Frantzisk; Франці́шак (Францыск It was published in Prague and Vilnius between 1517 and 1525, making it the first book printed in Belarus or anywhere in Eastern Europe. Prague (ˈprɑːg Praha (ˈpraɦa see also other names) is the Capital and Largest city of the Czech Republic. [101] The modern period of Belarusian literature began in the late-19th century; one important writer was Yanka Kupala. Yanka Kupala ( Janka Kupała, Я́нка Купа́ла; &ndash June 28, 1942) &mdash penname of Ivan Lutsevich (Ivan Daminikavič Łucevič Many notable Belarusian writers of the time, such as Uładzimir Žyłka, Kazimir Svayak, Yakub Kolas, Źmitrok Biadula and Maksim Haretski, wrote for a Belarusian language paper called Nasha Niva, published in Vilnius. Uładzimir Žyłka ( 27 May 1900 in Makaszy near by Nyasvizh, Belarus – 1 March 1933; Уладзімір Жылка Yakub Kolas, Jakub Kołas (Яку́б Ко́лас &ndash August 13 1956) real name Kanstancy Mickievič (Міцке́віч Канстанці́н Shmuel Yefimovich Plavnik (Samuił Jafimowicz Płaŭnik Самуіл Яфімавіч Плаўнік April 23, 1886 - November 3, 1941) better Maksim Haretski was a Belarusian prose writer In 1919 he published a short novel titled Two Souls. After Belarus was incorporated into the Soviet Union, the Soviet government took control of the Republic's cultural affairs. The free development of literature occurred only in Polish-held territory until Soviet occupation in 1939. [101] Several poets and authors went into exile after the Nazi occupation of Belarus, not to return until the 1960s. [101] The last major revival of Belarusian literature occurred in the 1960s with novels published by Vasil Bykaŭ and Uładzimir Karatkievič. Vasil Uładzimiravič Bykaŭ (Васі́ль Уладзі́міравіч Бы́каў Васи́лий (Васи́ль Влади́мирович Бы́ков Vasily Vladimirovich
In the 17th century, Polish composer Stanislaw Moniuszko composed operas and chamber music pieces while living in Minsk. Babka, or Bobka, also known as baba, is a sweet pastry yeast cake Stanisław Moniuszko (born May 5, 1819 in Ubiel near Minsk - June 4, 1872 in Warsaw, Congress Poland) was a During his stay, he worked with Belarusian poet Vincent Dunin-Marcinkevich and created the opera Sielanka (Peasant Woman). Vintsent Dunin-Martsinkyevich (Вінцэнт (Вінцук Дунін-Марцінкевіч 'Wincenty Dunin-Marcinkiewicz' c At the end of the 19th century, major Belarusian cities formed their own opera and ballet companies. The ballet Nightingale by M. Nightingale was a ballet composed in the Byelorussian SSR (now Belarus) Kroshner was composed during the Soviet era and became the first Belarusian ballet showcased at the National Academic Bolshoi Ballet Theatre in Minsk. [102] After the Great Patriotic War, music focused on the hardships of the Belarusian people or on those who took up arms in defense of the homeland. The term Great Patriotic War (Великая Отечественная война Velikaya Otechestvennaya Vojna) is used in Russia and some other During this period, A. Bogatyryov, creator of the opera In Polesye Virgin Forest, served as the "tutor" of Belarusian composers. [103] The National Academic Theatre of Ballet, in Minsk, was awarded the Benois de la Dance Prize in 1996 as the top ballet company in the world. The Benois de la Danse is a ballet competition founded by the International Dance Association in Moscow in 1991 [103] Although rock music has risen in popularity in recent years, the Belarusian government has suppressed the development of popular music through various legal and economic mechanisms. [104] Since 2004, Belarus has been sending artists to the Eurovision Song Contest. [105]
The Belarusian government sponsors annual cultural festivals such as the Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk, which showcases Belarusian performers, artists, writers, musicians, and actors. The International Festival of Arts "Slavianski Bazaar in Vitebsk" (Международный фестиваль искусств «Славянский базар в Витебске» Several state holidays, such as Independence Day and Victory Day, draw big crowds and often include displays such as fireworks and military parades, especially in Vitebsk and Minsk. An Independence Day is an annual celebration commemorating the Anniversary of a Nation 's assumption of independent Statehood, usually after ceasing For the song see Den Pobedy In the Russian Federation and some Former USSR countries Victory Day marks the capitulation [106] The government's Ministry of Culture finances events promoting Belarusian arts and culture both inside and outside the country.
The traditional Belarusian dress originates from the Kievan Rus' period. Kievan Rus′ (Ки́евская Русь romanised: Kievskaya Rus', rusʲ also written as Kyivan Rus′ (Ки́ївська Русь or Kievan Because of the cool climate, clothes, usually composed of flax or wool, were designed to keep the body warm. Flax (also known as common flax or linseed) (binomial name Linum usitatissimum) is a member of the genus Linum Wool is the fiber derived from the specialized skin cells called follicles of animals in the Caprinae family principally sheep, but the hair of certain species They were decorated with ornate patterns influenced by the neighboring cultures: Poles, Lithuanians, Latvians, Russians, and other European nations. Each region of Belarus has developed specific design patterns. [107] An ornamental pattern used on some early dresses is currently used to decorate the hoist of the Belarusian national flag, adopted in a disputed referendum in 1995. List of flags of Belarus The current national flag of Belarus was formally adopted on June 7 1995 following the result of a Referendum voted on by the Belarusian people The May 14 1995 Belarus Referendum required the population of Belarus to vote on four issues The state status of the Russian language Economic integration [108]
Belarusian cuisine consists mainly of vegetables, meat (especially pork), and breads. Belarusian cuisine derives from the same sources as those of its neighbours - Lithuanians, Ukrainians, Poles, and in later times Russians Foods are usually either slowly cooked or stewed. A typical Belarusian eats a very light breakfast and two hearty meals, with dinner being the largest meal of the day. Wheat and rye breads are consumed in Belarus, but rye is more plentiful because conditions are too harsh for growing wheat. To show hospitality, a host presents an offering of bread and salt when greeting a guest or visitor. [109] Popular drinks in Belarus include Russian wheat vodka and kvass, a soft drink made from malted brown bread or rye flour. Kvass or kvas (literally "leaven" borrowed in the 16th century from Russian квас ( kvas) sometimes translated into English Kvass may also be combined with sliced vegetables to create a cold soup called okroshka. [110]
Belarus has four World Heritage Sites: the Mir Castle Complex, the Niasvizh Castle, the Belovezhskaya Pushcha (shared with Poland), and the Struve Geodetic Arc (shared with nine other countries). A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex The Mirsky Castle Complex (Мірскі замак Мирский замок is a UNESCO World Heritage site in Belarus located in the town Białowieża Primaeval Forest, known as Belaveskaya Pushcha (Белавеская пушча or Belovezhskaya Pushcha in Belarus Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The Struve Geodetic Arc is a chain of survey triangulations stretching from Hammerfest in Norway to the Black Sea, through ten countries [111]
The largest media holding group in Belarus is the state-owned National State Teleradiocompany. The National State TV and Radio Company of the Republic of Belarus (Нацыянальная Дзяржаўная Тэлерадыёкампанія Рэспублікі Беларусь It operates several television stations and radio stations that broadcast content domestically and internationally, either through frequency signals or the Internet. [112] The Television Broadcasting Network is one of the major independent television stations in Belarus, mostly showing regional programming. Several newspapers, printed either in Belarusian or Russian, provide general information or special interest content, such as business, politics or sports. Below is a list of Newspapers published in Belarus. These newspapers are published in Minsk, unless otherwise noted In 1998, there were fewer than 100 total radio stations in Belarus: 28 AM, 37 FM and 11 shortwave stations. See also Frequency modulation, FM band FM broadcasting is a broadcast Technology invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong that [113]
All media companies are regulated by the Law On Press and Other Mass Media, passed on January 13, 1995. Zhodzina (Жодзiна 'ʐodzʲina Жодино -, also called Zhodino, is a city in Belarus, located in the Minsk voblast, 50 km to east from Events 532 - Nika riots in Constantinople. 888 - Odo Count of Paris becomes King of the Franks Year 1995 ( MCMXCV) was a Common year starting on Sunday. Events of 1995 [114] This grants the freedom of press; however, Article 5 states that slander cannot be made against the president of Belarus or other officials outlined in the national constitution. [114] The Belarusian Government has since been criticized for acting against media outlets. Newspapers such as Nasa Niva and the Belaruskaya Delovaya Gazeta have been targeted for closure by the authorities after they published reports critical of President Lukashenko or other government officials. [115][116] The OSCE and Freedom House have commented regarding the loss of press freedom in Belarus. Freedom House is a United States -based international Non-governmental organization that conducts research and advocacy on Democracy, political In 2005, Freedom House gave Belarus the score of 6. 75 (not free) when it came to dealing with press freedom. Another issue for the Belarusian press is the unresolved disappearance of several journalists. [117]
See also
References
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- ^ Law of the Republic of Belarus - About the name of the Republic of Belarus (Russian). Pravo - Law of the Republic of Belarus (1991-09-19). Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Events 335 - Dalmatius is raised to the rank of Caesar by his uncle Constantine I. Retrieved on 2007-10-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus
- ^ Katkouski, Uladzimir (2003-02-03). Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1112 - Ramon Berenguer III of Barcelona and Douce I of Provence marry uniting the fortunes of those two states Belarus: Belarusian and Belarusan the correct adjective forms. Pravapis. org. Retrieved on 2006-03-08. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1618 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion.
- ^ Belarus - Government. The World Factbook. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the Central Intelligence Agency (2007-12-13). near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ a b Rambaud, Alfred; Edgar Saltus (1902). Russia. P. F. Collier & Son, 46–48.
- ^ Treuttel; Various (1841). The Foreign Quarterly Review. New York, New York: Jemia Mason, 38.
- ^ Plokhy, Serhii (2006). The Origins of the Slavic Nations. Cambridge University Press, 94–95. ISBN 0521864038.
- ^ Robinson, Charles Henry (1917). The Conversion of Europe. Longmans, Green, 491–492.
- ^ Zaprudnik, Jan (1993). Belarus: At a Crossroads in History. Westview Press, 27. ISBN 0813317940.
- ^ Lerski, George Jan; Aleksander Gieysztor (1996). Historical Dictionary of Poland, 966–1945. Greenwood Press, 181–182. ISBN 0313260079.
- ^ Edited by Michael Jones; Albert Rigaudière, Jeremy Catto, S. C. Rowell and others (2005). The New Cambridge Medieval History (Vol. 6). Cambridge University Press, p. 710. ISBN 0521362903.
- ^ Nowak, Andrzej (1997-01-01). Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC The Russo-Polish Historical Confrontation. Sarmatian Review XVII. Rice University. William Marsh Rice University (commonly called Rice University and opened in 1912 as The William Marsh Rice Institute for the Advancement of Letters Science and Art Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Scheuch, E. K. ; David Sciulli (2000). Societies, Corporations and the Nation State. BRILL, 187. ISBN 9004116648.
- ^ Birgerson, Susanne Michele (2002). After the Breakup of a Multi-Ethnic Empire. Praeger/Greenwood, 101. ISBN 0275969657.
- ^ Olson, James Stuart; Lee Brigance Pappas, Nicholas C. J. Pappas (1994). Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Russian and Soviet Empires. Greenwood Press, 95. ISBN 0313274975.
- ^ a b c (Birgerson 2002:105–106)
- ^ a b (Olson 1994:95)
- ^ a b c d Fedor, Helen (1995). Belarus - Stalin and Russification. Belarus: A Country Study. Library of Congress. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ Belarus History and Culture. iExplore. com. Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ a b Fedor, Helen (1995). Belarus- Perestroika. Belarus: A Country Study. Library of Congress. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress Retrieved on 2007-03-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ {Birgerson 2002:99)
- ^ a b c d Fedor, Helen (1995). Belarus - Prelude to Independence. Belarus: A Country Study. Library of Congress. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ World Factbook: Belarus (TXT). Central Intelligence Agency (1994-10-20). Year 1994 ( MCMXCIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full 1994 Gregorian calendar) Events 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony Retrieved on 2007-12-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 69 - The end of the Year of the four emperors: Following Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian
- ^ a b Section IV:The President, Parliament, Government, the Courts. Constitution of Belarus. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate Press Service of the President of the Republic of Belarus (2004). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ OSCE Report on the October 2004 parliamentary elections (PDF). Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (December 2004). Retrieved on 2007-03-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem.
- ^ Belarus rally marred by arrests. BBC News (2 March 2006). Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ Profile: Alexander Lukashenko. BBC News (20 March 2006). Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ Mulvey, Stephen. "Profile: Europe's last dictator?", BBC News, British Broadcasting Corporation, 2001-09-10. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde. Retrieved on 2007-12-21. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 69 - The end of the Year of the four emperors: Following Galba, Otho and Vitellius, Vespasian
- ^ Belarus suspended from the Council of Europe. Press Service of the Council of Europe (January 17 1997). Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ Essential Background - Belarus. Human Rights Watch (2005). Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ Human rights by country - Belarus. Amnesty International Report 2007. Amnesty International (2007). Amnesty International (commonly known as Amnesty or AI) is a Western based international Non-governmental organization which defines its mission as "to Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Capital Punishment in Belarus and Changes of Belarus Criminal Legislation related thereto. Embassy of the Republic of Belarus in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Opening Statement by Dr. Condoleezza Rice, Senate Foreign Relations Committee (PDF) (January 18, 2005). Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ At-a-glance: 'Outposts of tyranny'. BBC News (19 January 2005). Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ a b c d United States Government (2007). Background Note: Belarus. United States State Department. Retrieved on 2007-11-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
- ^ "Russia-Belarus Union Presidency Dismissed", The Moscow Times, 2007-12-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V Retrieved on 2007-12-13. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1294 - Saint Celestine V abdicates the papacy after only five months Celestine hoped to return to his previous life
- ^ AP. "Putin named PM of Belarus-Russia alliance", 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed Retrieved on 2008-05-27. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed
- ^ Radio Free Europe (2006). CIS: Foreign Ministers, Heads Of State Gather In Minsk For Summit. Retrieved on 2007-11-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
- ^ EU imposes Belarus travel ban. BBC News. BBC (2002-11-19). Retrieved on 2007-12-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1800 - War of the Second Coalition: Battle of Hohenlinden, French )
- ^ a b Foreign Policy. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus (2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ U.S. Government Assistance FY 97 Annual Report. United States Embassy in Minsk, Belarus (1998). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ "Belarus Democracy Act Will Help Cause of Freedom, Bush Says", USINO, United States State Department, 2007-10-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 202 BC - Hannibal Barca, leader of the Carthaginians, is defeated by the Roman legions under Scipio Africanus Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Relations between Belarus and the United States of America. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Pan, Letian. "China, Belarus agree to upgrade economic ties", Xinhua News Agency, 2005-12-06. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1060 - Béla I of Hungary is crowned king of Hungary 1240 - Mongol invasion of Rus: Kiev Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ "Syria and Belarus agree to promote trade", BBC News, British Broadcasting Corporation, 1998-03-13. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Events 1138 - Cardinal Gregorio Conti is elected Antipope as Victor IV, succeeding Anacletus II. Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ "Belarus-Syria report subsantial progress in trade and economic relations", Press Service of the President of the Republic of Belarus, 2007-08-31. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1056 - Byzantine Empress Theodora becomes ill dying suddenly a few days later without children to succeed the Throne Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the RB (2007). Membership of the Republic of Belarus in International Organizations. Retrieved on 2007-11-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani
- ^ Growth in United Nations membership, 1945-present. Department of Public Information. United Nations Organization (2006-07-03). The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ High-ranking Military Officials of the Republic of Belarus. Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Section IV:The President, Parliament, Government, the Courts. Constitution of Belarus. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate Press Service of the President of the Republic of Belarus (2004). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ History (Russian). Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Belarus (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Routledge, IISS Military Balance 2007, p. The International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS is a British research institute (or Think tank) in the area of international affairs. 158–159
- ^ Bykovsky, Pavel; Alexander Vasilevich (2001–05). Military Development and the Armed Forces of Belarus. Moscow Defense Brief. Retrieved on 2007-10-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks.
- ^ Belarus - Military. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (2005). Retrieved on 2007-10-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks.
- ^ Belarus and NATO. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus (2002). Retrieved on 2007-10-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks.
- ^ a b Section I: Principles of the Constitutional System. Constitution of Belarus. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate Press Service of the President of the Republic of Belarus (2004). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Section V: Local government and self-government. Constitution of Belarus. The Constitution of the Republic of Belarus (Канстытуцыя Рэспублікі Беларусь Конституция Республики Беларусь is the ultimate Press Service of the President of the Republic of Belarus (2004). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Carvalho, Fernando Duarte; North Atlantic Treaty Organization (2004). Defence Related SME's: Analysis and Description of Current Conditions. IOS Press, 32. ISBN 1586034081.
- ^ About Minsk. Minsk City Executive Committee. Retrieved on 2007-12-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor.
- ^ a b c d e Belarus - Geography. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency (2007). Retrieved on 2007-11-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
- ^ a b Bell, Imogen (2002). Eastern Europe, Russia and Central Asia 2003. Taylor & Francis, 132. ISBN 1857431375.
- ^ (Zaprudnik, xix)
- ^ a b Fedor, Helen (1995). Belarus - Climate. Belarus: A Country Study. Library of Congress. The Library of Congress is the De facto National library of the United States and the research arm of the United States Congress Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Rainsford, Sarah (April 26 2005). Belarus cursed by Chernobyl. BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ The United Nations and Chernobyl - The Republic of Belarus. United Nations (2004). Retrieved on 2007-10-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas
- ^ Smith, Marilyn. "Ecological reservation in Belarus fosters new approaches to soil remediation", International Atomic Energy Agency. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 324 - Licinius abdicates his position as Roman Emperor.
- ^ State Border - Delimitation History. State Border Committee of the Republic of Belarus (2006). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ Lithuania's Cooperation with Belarus. Lithuanian Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved on 2007-12-19. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 324 - Licinius abdicates his position as Roman Emperor.
- ^ Ministry of Statistics and Analysis of the Republic of Belarus (2006). Labour. Retrieved on 2007-11-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with
- ^ Dr. Kaare Dahl Martinsen (2002). The Russian-Belarusian Union and the Near Abroad (PDF). Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies. NATO. Retrieved on 2007-11-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
- ^ "Russia may cut oil supplies to ally Belarus - Putin", Reuters, 2006-10-25. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a Retrieved on 2007-10-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 314 - Roman Emperor Licinius is defeated by his colleague Constantine I at the Battle of Cibalae, and loses
- ^ a b c The World Factbook - Belarus - Economy. Central Intelligence Agency (2006). Retrieved on 2007-10-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 314 - Roman Emperor Licinius is defeated by his colleague Constantine I at the Battle of Cibalae, and loses
- ^ Library of Congress (1994). Belarus - Exports. Country Studies. Retrieved on 2007-11-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1333 - Flood of the Arno River, causing massive damage in Florence as recorded by the Florentine chronicler Giovanni Villani
- ^ Economic and Investment Review (pdf). Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Belarus (2007). Retrieved on 2007-12-22. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies
- ^ World Bank. The World Bank is an internationally supported Bank that provides financial and technical assistance to developing countries for development programs (e "Belarus: Prices, Markets, and Enterprise Reform," pp. 1. World Bank, 1997. ISBN 0821339761
- ^ Belarus - Industry. Country Studies. Library of Congress (1995). Retrieved on 2007-10-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 314 - Roman Emperor Licinius is defeated by his colleague Constantine I at the Battle of Cibalae, and loses
- ^ a b World Bank (2006). Belarus - Country Brief 2003. Retrieved on 2007-11-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all
- ^ a b Council of Ministers Foreign trade in goods and services in Belarus up by 11.5% in January-October. Published 2006. Retrieved October 6, 2007. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ a b European Union The EU's Relationship With Belarus - Trade (PDF). Published November 2006. Retrieved October 6, 2007. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ World Trade Organization Accessions - Belarus. Retrieved October 6, 2007. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ a b c d e Ministry of Statistics and Analysis Labor Statistics in Belarus. Published 2005. Retrieved March 18, 2007. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ National Bank of the Republic of Belarus History of the Belarusian Ruble. Retrieved March 18, 2007. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Pravda. ru Belarus abandons pegging its currency to Russian ruble. Published August 23, 2007. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved October 6, 2007. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Heritage Foundation's Index of Economic Freedom - Belarus. Retrieved on March 18, 2007.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j CIA World Factbook (2007) - Belarus - People. Retrieved on 2007-11-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1492 - The Ensisheim Meteorite the oldest Meteorite with a known date of impact strikes the Earth around noon in a Wheat
- ^ "Languages across Europe." BBC Education at bbc. co. uk. Accessed November 6, 2007. Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Data of the 1999 Belarusian general census In English. Reviewed October 6, 2007. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Gordon, Raymond G. , Jr. (ed. ), 2005. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex. : SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com/.
- ^ World Gazette Largest Cities of Belarus (2007). Published in 2007. Retrieved March 19, 2007. Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Population Pyramid Summary for Belarus. US Census Bureau. Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ The literacy rate is defined as the percentage of people aged 15 and older who can read and write.
- ^ Library of Congress Country Studies Belarus - Religion. Retrieved July 9, 2007. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Minsk Jewish Campus Jewish Belarus. Retrieved July 9, 2007. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Webportal of the President of the Republic of Belarus Section One of the Constitution. Published 1994, amended in 1996. Retrieved June 6, 2007. Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Old Belarusian Poetry. Virtual Guide to Belarus (1994). Retrieved on 2007-10-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks.
- ^ a b c "Belarus. " Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Encyclopædia Britannica Online. <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-33482>.
- ^ Zou, Crystal. "Ballets for Christmas", Shanghai Star, 2003-12-11. Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Retrieved on 2007-12-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 69 - Vespasian, formerly a general under Nero, enters Rome to claim the title of Emperor.
- ^ a b Virtual Guide to Belarus - Classical Music of Belarus. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Freemuse Blacklisted bands play in Poland. Published on March 17, 2006. Events 45 BC - In his last victory Julius Caesar defeats the Pompeian forces of Titus Labienus and Pompey the Younger Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved March 18, 2007. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ National State TeleradiocompanyPage on the 2004 Belarusian entry to the Eurovision Song Contest. Published 2004. Retrieved March 18, 2007. Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Belarusian National Culture. Embassy of the Republic of Belarus in the United States of America. Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ Virtual Guide to Belarus Belarusian traditional clothing. Retrieved on March 21, 2007. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Flags of the World Belarus - Ornament. Published November 26, 2006. Events 43 BC - The Second Triumvirate alliance of Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus ("Octavian" later "Caesar Augustus" Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Canadian Citizenship and Immigration - Cultures Profile Project - Eating the Belarusian Way. Published in 1998. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ University of Nebraska-Lincoln - Institute of Agriculture and National Resources. Situation and Outlook - People and Their Diets. Published in April 2000. Retrieved March 21, 2007. Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Belarus - UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved on 2006-03-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1026 - Pope John XIX crowns Conrad II as Holy Roman Emperor.
- ^ National State Teleradiocompany About us. Retrieved October 5, 2007. Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ CIA World Factbook (2007) - Belarus - Communications. Retrieved on 2007-10-04. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 610 - Heraclius arrives by ship from Africa at Constantinople, overthrows Byzantine Emperor Phocas
- ^ a b Law of the Republic of Belarus Law On Press and Other Mass Media. Retrieved October 5, 2007. Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
- ^ Eurozine Independent Belarusian newspaper "Nasha Niva" to close. Published April 19, 2006. Events 1012 - Martyrdom of Alphege in Greenwich London. 1529 - At the Second Diet of Speyer Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ United States Department of States Media Freedom in Belarus. Press release by Philip T. Reeker. Published May 30, 2003. Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar.
- ^ Freedom House Country Report - Belarus. Published 2005. Reviewed October 6, 2007. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.
Further reading
- Zaprudnik, Jan, Belarus: At a Crossroads in History, Westview Press, 1993 (ISBN 0813317940)
External links
Media
- Dima Bartalevich's photos of Minsk
- Belarus News and Analysis
- Politics and News from Belarus
- (Belarusian) News of Belarus
Governmental websites
- President's official site
- Government of Belarus
- Embassy of Belarus in the United States
- E-Government in Belarus
- Ministry of Foreign Affairs
Informational/cultural
- A Belarus Miscellany
- The Virtual Guide of Belarus
- Media in Belarus
- Belarus entry at The World Factbook
- The World Bank in Belarus
- The health resort of Belarus
Dictionary
Belarus
-proper noun
- A country in Europe. Official name: Republic of Belarus (Рэспублiка Беларусь).
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