| Caesar Augustus | |
| Emperor of the Roman Empire | |
 | |
| Reign | January 16, 27 BC – August 19 AD 14 |
|---|---|
| Full name | Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus |
| Born | September 23, 63 BC |
| Birthplace | Rome, Roman Republic |
| Died | August 19 AD 14 (age 75) |
| Place of death | Nola, Italia, Roman Empire |
| Buried | Mausoleum of Augustus |
| Predecessor | Gaius Julius Caesar |
| Successor | Tiberius, stepson by third wife and adoptive son |
| Consort to | 1) Clodia Pulchra ? – 40 BC 2) Scribonia 40 BC – 38 BC 3) Livia Drusilla 38 BC – AD 14 |
| Issue | Julia the Elder |
| Royal House | Julio-Claudian |
| Father | Gaius Octavius; adopted by Julius Caesar |
| Mother | Atia Balba Caesonia |
Augustus (Latin: IMPERATOR•CÆSAR•DIVI•FILIVS•AVGVSTVS;a[›] September 23, 63 BC – August 19 AD 14), born Gaius Octavius Thurinus and prior to 27 BC, known as Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (Latin: GAIVS•IVLIVS•CÆSAR•OCTAVIANVS) after adoption, was the first emperor of the Roman Empire, who ruled from 27 BC until his death in 14 AD. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 63 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Pompey conquers Phonecia, Coele-Syria Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Nola is a city of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines. Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Mausoleum of Augustus was a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Clodia Pulchra, also known as Claudia (born 57 BC/56 BC was the daughter of Fulvia (later wife of Mark Antony) and her first husband Publius Clodius Scribonia (68 BC-16 was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo and Cornelia Sulla (the daughter of Faustus Cornelius Sulla, the granddaughter of Pompey Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Julia Augusta ( Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA IVLIA•AVGVSTA (58 BC-29 AD was the wife of Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Gaius Octavius (about 100 BC-59 BC was the father of emperor Augustus. Atia Balba Caesonia (85 BC-43 BC was a Roman noblewoman She was the mother of the Roman Emperor Augustus, and daughter of Julius Caesar 's sister Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 63 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Pompey conquers Phonecia, Coele-Syria Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 27 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. By the Republican era and throughout the Imperial era, a Name in Ancient Rome for a male citizen consisted of three parts ( tria The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The young Octavius was adopted by his great uncle, Julius Caesar and came into his inheritance after Caesar's assassination in 44 BC. In 43 BC, Octavian joined forces with Mark Antony and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus in a military dictatorship known as the Second Triumvirate. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ( Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVSborn ca 90 BC died 13 BC, was a Patrician Roman politician A military dictatorship is a Form of government wherein the political power resides with the Military; it is similar but not identical to a Stratocracy, See also the Second Triumvirate (Argentina which held power in 1812 As a Triumvir, Octavian effectually ruled Rome and most of its provinces[1] as an autocrat, seizing consular power after the deaths of the consuls Hirtius and Pansa and having himself perpetually re-elected. Aulus Hirtius (ca 90-43 BC was one of the Consuls of Ancient Rome immediately after the Assassination of Julius Caesar, and a Writer Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus (d 43 BC Consul of the Roman Republic in 43 BC The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart under the competing ambitions of its rulers: Lepidus was driven into exile, and Antony committed suicide following his defeat at the Battle of Actium by the armies of Octavian in 31 BC. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony
After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Octavian restored the outward facade of the Roman Republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, but in practice retained his autocratic power. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. It took several years to work out the exact framework by which a formally republican state could be led by a sole ruler, the result of which became known as the Roman Empire. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The emperorship was never an office like the Roman dictatorship which Caesar and Sulla had held before him; indeed, he declined it when the Roman populace "entreated him to take on the dictatorship". Dictator was a Political office of the Roman Republic. The dictator was above the three branches of government in the Constitution of the Roman Republic Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix ( Latin: L•CORNELIVS•L•F•P•N•SVLLA•FELIX (c [2] By law, Augustus held a collection of powers granted to him for life by the Senate, including those of tribune of the plebs and censor. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the A Censor was a magistrate of high rank in the ancient Roman Republic. He was consul until 23 BC. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. [3] His substantive power stemmed from financial success and resources gained in conquest, the building of patronage relationships throughout the Empire, the loyalty of many military soldiers and veterans, the authority of the many honors granted by the Senate,[4] and the respect of the people. Augustus' control over the majority of Rome's legions established an armed threat that could be used against the Senate, allowing him to coerce the Senate's decisions. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," With his ability to eliminate senatorial opposition by means of arms, the Senate became docile towards his paramount position of leadership.
The rule of Augustus initiated an era of relative peace known as the Pax Romana, or Roman peace. Pax Romana ( Latin for " Roman Peace " was the long period of relative peace and minimal expansion by military force Despite continuous frontier wars, and one year-long civil war over the imperial succession, the Mediterranean world remained at peace for more than two centuries. The Year of the Four Emperors was a year in the history of the Roman Empire, AD 69 in which four emperors ruled in a remarkable succession Augustus expanded the boundaries of the Roman Empire, secured the Empire's borders with client states, and made peace with Parthia through diplomacy. Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army (and a small navy), established the Praetorian Guard, and created official police and fire-fighting forces for Rome. The Roman Roads were essential for the growth of the Roman Empire, by enabling the Romans to move armies and trade goods and to communicate news A courier is a Person or company employed to deliver Messages packages and Mail. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated Much of the city was rebuilt under Augustus; and he wrote a record of his own accomplishments, known as the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, which has survived. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus Upon his death in AD 14, Augustus was declared a god by the Senate, to be worshipped by the Romans. [5] His names Augustus and Caesar were adopted by every subsequent emperor, and the month of Sextilis was officially renamed August in his honour. Sextilis was the original Latin name for the sixth month in the Roman calendar. Other names In Arabic, the month is called أغسطسص ʾUġusṭuṣ or آب ʾĀb; usage varies from place to place and He was succeeded by his stepson Tiberius. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman
Contents |
Early life
| ||||||||||||||||||||
While his paternal family was from the town of Velitrae, about 25 miles from Rome, Augustus was born in the city of Rome on September 23, 63 BC. The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA See also Gaius Julius Caesar, for others of the same name Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC - AD 4 most commonly known as Julius Caesar, was For other men named Lucius (Julius Caesar see Lucius Julius Caesar Lucius Julius Caesar (17 BC-2 most commonly known as Lucius Caesar Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus (12 BC-14 also known as Agrippa Postumus or Postumus Agrippa, was a son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Nero Claudius Drusus, later Drusus Julius Caesar (his adoptive name (13 BC- September 14 23) was the only child of Roman Emperor Tiberius Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (August 31 AD 12 &ndash January 24 AD 41 more commonly known by his nickname Caligula (kəˈlɪɡjʊlə was a Roman Emperor For the identically named daughter of Germanicus, see Drusilla (sister of Caligula. Tiberius Julius Caesar Nero Gemellus, known as Tiberius Gemellus, ( 10 October AD 19 &ndash AD 37 or 38 was the son of Drusus and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to Claudia Antonia ( Classical Latin: ANTONIA•CLAUDII•CAESARIS•FILIA (ca Claudia Octavia ( Classical Latin: CLAVDIA•OCTAVIA (Late 39 or early 40- 9 June 62 was a Roman Empress step-sister and first wife to Roman Emperor For the 1669 Tragedy by French Dramatist Jean Racine, see Britannicus (play. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called Claudia Augusta (PIR2 C 1061 was the only daughter of the Roman Emperor Nero by his second wife Roman Empress Poppaea Sabina. See also Augustus The early life of the Roman Emperor Augustus began at his birth in Rome on September 23, 63 Velletri is a Comune in the Province of Rome, on the Alban Hills, in Lazio ( Latium) - Italy Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English He was born at Ox Heads, which was a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. This page refers to the main forum in the center of Rome See Imperial forums or Other forums in Rome (below for other forums in Rome and An astrologer had given a warning to his father. However, his father decided to keep the child despite the warning (rather than leave the child in the open to be eaten by dogs). He was given the name Gaius Octavius. [6] Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavian (at this point he was simply called Gaius) was taken to his father's home village at Velitrae to be raised. Velletri is a Comune in the Province of Rome, on the Alban Hills, in Lazio ( Latium) - Italy
Octavian only mentions his father's equestrian family briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. The Second Punic War (referred to as "The War Against Hannibal" by the Romans lasted from 218 to 201 BC and involved combatants in the western His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Gaius Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. Gaius Octavius (about 100 BC-59 BC was the father of emperor Augustus. The Roman province of Macedonia was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon [7][8] Shortly after Octavius' birth, his father gave him the cognomen of Thurinus, possibly to commemorate his victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves. The cognomen (plural cognomina) was originally the third name of an Ancient Roman in the Roman naming convention. Thurii &ndash Greek:, called also by some Latin writers and by Ptolemy, Thurium ( Ptol [9] His mother Atia was the niece of Julius Caesar. Atia Balba Caesonia (85 BC-43 BC was a Roman noblewoman She was the mother of the Roman Emperor Augustus, and daughter of Julius Caesar 's sister
Since Octavius' father was a plebeian, Octavius himself was a plebeian, despite the fact that his mother, being Julius Caesar's niece, was a patrician. Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and [10] Octavius gained patrician status when he was adopted by Julius Caesar in 44 BC. Year 44 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar.
In 59 BC, when he was four years old, his father died. [11] His mother married a former governor of Syria, Lucius Marcius Philippus. Lucius Marcius Philippus (flourished 1st century BC) was a member of a Roman senatorial family [12] Philippus claimed descent from Alexander the Great, and was elected consul in 56 BC. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected Political office of the Roman Republic and the Empire. Philippus never had much of an interest in young Octavius. Because of this, Octavius was raised by his grandmother (and Julius Caesar's sister), Julia Caesaris. Julia is the name of two daughters of proconsul Gaius Julius Caesar and Aurelia Cotta, the parents of dictator Gaius Julius Caesar.
In 52 or 51 BC, Julia Caesaris died. Octavius delivered the funeral oration for his grandmother. [13] From this point, his mother and stepfather took a more active role in raising him. He donned the toga virilis four years later,[14] and was elected to the College of Pontiffs in 47 BC. This article is about the aviation term for the Roman garment see Toga. The College of Pontiffs or Collegium Pontificum ( Collegium in Latin means a board or committee rather than an educational institution was a body of the [15][16] The following year he was put in charge of the Greek games that were staged in honor of the Temple of Venus Genetrix, built by Julius Caesar. The Temple of Venus Genetrix is a temple in the Forum of Caesar, Rome, dedicated to the Roman Goddess Venus Genetrix, the [16] According to Nicolaus of Damascus, Octavius wished to join Caesar's staff for his campaign in Africa but gave way when Atia protested. Nicolaus of Damascus ( Greek, Nikolāos Damaskēnos) was a Syrian Historian and Philosopher who lived during the Augustan The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. [17] In 46 BC, she consented for him to join Caesar in Hispania, where he planned to fight the forces of Pompey, Caesar's late enemy, but Octavius fell ill and was unable to travel. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation
When he had recovered, he sailed to the front, but was shipwrecked; after coming ashore with a handful of companions, he made it across hostile territory to Caesar's camp, which impressed his great-uncle considerably. [14] Velleius Paterculus reports that Caesar afterwards allowed the young man to share his carriage. This article is about the Roman Historian; for the Rove beetle genus see Velleius Marcus Velleius Paterculus [18] When back in Rome, Caesar deposited a new will with the Vestal Virgins, naming Octavius as the prime beneficiary. In Ancient Rome, the Vestal Virgins ( sacerdos Vestalis) were the virgin Holy female Priests of Vesta, the Goddess of the [19]
Rise to power
Heir to Caesar
At the time Caesar was killed on the Ides of March (the 15th) 44 BC, Octavius was studying and undergoing military training in Apollonia, Illyria. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Year 44 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. For the Roman consul see Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 171 BC. The Ides of March ( Latin: Idus Martiae is the name of the date 15 March in the Roman calendar. Rejecting the advice of some army officers to take refuge with the troops in Macedonia, he sailed to Italia to ascertain if he had any potential political fortunes or security. The Roman province of Macedonia was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. [20] After landing at Lupiae near Brundisium, he learned the contents of Caesar's will, and only then did he decide to become Caesar's political heir as well as heir to two-thirds of his estate. Brindisi can also refer to a song in which a company is exhorted to drink such as the "Tea-Cup Brindisi" in Gilbert and Sullivan 's " The [21][20][16] Having no living legitimate children,[22] Caesar had adopted his great-nephew Octavius as his son and main heir. [23] Owing to his adoption, Octavius assumed the name Gaius Julius Caesar. In Ancient Rome, Adoption of boys was a fairly common procedure particularly in the upper senatorial class Roman tradition dictated that he also append the cognomen Octavianus (Octavian) to indicate his biological family. Yet no evidence exists that he ever used that name, as it would have made his modest origins too obvious. [24][25] Mark Antony later charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through sexual favours, though Suetonius describes Antony's accusation as political slander. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark [26]
To make a successful entry into the echelons of the Roman political hierarchy, Octavian could not rely on his limited funds. [27] After a warm welcome by Caesar's soldiers at Brundisium,[28] Octavian demanded a portion of the funds that were allotted by Caesar for the intended war against Parthia in the Middle East. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran [27] This amounted to 700 million sesterces stored at Brundisium, the staging ground in Italy for military operations in the east. The sestertius, or sesterce, was an ancient Roman Coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small Silver, and rare coin issued [29] A later senatorial investigation into the disappearance of the public funds made no action against Octavian, since he subsequently used that money to raise troops against the Senate's arch enemy, Mark Antony. [28] Octavian made another bold move in 44 BC when he appropriated the annual tribute that had been sent from Rome's Near Eastern province to Italy without official permission. [25][30] Octavian began to bolster his personal forces with Caesar's veteran legionaries and with troops designated for the Parthian war, gathering support by emphasizing his status as heir to Caesar. [31][20] On his march to Rome through Italy, Octavian's presence and newly-acquired funds attracted many, winning over Caesar's former veterans stationed in Campania. Campania is a region of Southern Italy in Europe. The region has a population of around 5 [25] By June he had gathered an army of 3,000 loyal veterans, paying each a salary of 500 denarii. The Roman Currency system included the denarius (plural denarii) after 211 BC a small Silver coin, [32][33][34]
Arriving in Rome on May 6, 44 BC,[25] Octavian found the consul Mark Antony, Caesar's former colleague, in an uneasy truce with the dictator's assassins; they had been granted a general amnesty on March 17, yet Antony succeeded in driving most of them out of Rome. Augustus of Prima Porta is a 204m high marble statue of Augustus Caesar which was discovered on April 20, 1863 in the Villa of Livia at Events 1527 - Spanish and German troops sack Rome; some consider this the end of the Renaissance. Year 44 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark [25] This was due to his "inflammatory" eulogy given at Caesar's funeral, mounting public opinion against the assassins. [25] Although Mark Antony was amassing political support, Octavian still had opportunity to rival him as the leading member of the faction supporting Caesar. Mark Antony had lost the support of many Romans and supporters of Caesar when he at first opposed the motion to elevate Caesar to divine status. [35] Octavian failed to persuade Antony to relinquish Caesar's money to him, but managed to win support from Caesarian sympathizers during the summer. [36] In September, the Optimate orator Marcus Tullius Cicero began to attack Antony in a series of speeches, seeing Antony as the greatest threat to the order of the Senate. Optimates (singular optimas, The Best of Men, Italian: ottimati; also known as the priests or boni, the Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman A philippic is a fiery damning speech or Tirade, delivered to condemn a particular political actor [37][38] With opinion in Rome turning against him and his year of consular power nearing its end, Antony attempted to pass laws which would lend him control over Cisalpine Gaul, which had been assigned as part of his province, from Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus, one of Caesar's assassins. Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later For others with this cognomen see Albinus (cognomen. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born circa 85 BC died 43 BC was a Roman politician [39][40] Octavian meanwhile built up a private army in Italy by recruiting Caesarian veterans, and on November 28 won over two of Antony's legions with the enticing offer of monetary gain. [41][42][43] With Octavian's large and capable force, Antony saw the danger of staying in Rome, and to the relief of the Senate he fled to Cisalpine Gaul, which was to be handed to him on January 1. [43]
First conflict with Antony
After Decimus Brutus refused to give up Cisalpine Gaul, Antony besieged him at Mutina. The Roman Currency system included the denarius (plural denarii) after 211 BC a small Silver coin, A galley (from Greek γαλέα - galea is an ancient Ship which can be propelled entirely by human oarsmen, used for Warfare The signa militaria were the Roman military Ensigns or standards The most ancient standard employed by the Romans is said to have been a handful ( maniple Legio VI Ferrata ( Ironclad) was a Roman legion. Ferrata was not the only name that Legion VI was called it was also known as Fidelas Constans Cisalpine Gaul ( Latin: Gallia Cisalpina, meaning " Gaul on this side of the Alps " was the Roman name for a geographical area (later Modena (ˈmɔːdena Mòdna in Modenese dialect is a city and a Comune ( Municipality) on the south side of the Po valley, in the [44] The resolutions passed by the Senate to stop the violence were rejected by Antony, as the Senate had no army of its own to challenge him; this provided an opportunity for Octavian, who was already known to have armed forces. [42] Cicero also defended Octavian against Antony's taunts about Octavian's lack of noble lineage; he stated "we have no more brilliant example of traditional piety among our youth. "[45] This was in part a rebuttal to Antony's opinion of Octavian, as Cicero quoted Antony saying to Octavian, "You, boy, owe everything to your name. "[46][47] In this unlikely alliance orchestrated by the arch anti-Caesarian senator Cicero, the Senate inducted Octavian as senator on January 1, 43 BC, yet he was also given the power to vote alongside the former consuls. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 43 BC was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [42][43] In addition, Octavian was granted imperium (commanding power), which made his command of troops legal, sending him to relieve the siege along with Hirtius and Pansa (the consuls for 43 BC). Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power Aulus Hirtius (ca 90-43 BC was one of the Consuls of Ancient Rome immediately after the Assassination of Julius Caesar, and a Writer Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus (d 43 BC Consul of the Roman Republic in 43 BC [48][42] In April of 43 BC, Antony's forces were defeated at the battles of Forum Gallorum and Mutina, forcing Antony to retreat to Transalpine Gaul. The Battle of Forum Gallorum was fought near a village in Northern Italy (perhaps near modern day Castelfranco Emilia) on April 14, 43 BC between The Battle of Mutina was fought on April 21, 43 BC between the forces of Marc Antony and the forces of Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus and Gallia Narbonensis ( Narbonese Gaul) was a Roman province located in what is now Languedoc and Provence, in southern France. However, both consuls were killed, leaving Octavian in sole command of their armies. [49][50]
After heaping many more rewards on Decimus Brutus than Octavian for defeating Antony, the Senate attempted to give command of the consular legions to Decimus Brutus, yet Octavian decided not to cooperate. For others with this cognomen see Albinus (cognomen. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus (born circa 85 BC died 43 BC was a Roman politician [51] Instead, Octavian stayed in the Po Valley and refused to aid any further offensive against Antony. Po RiverThe Po Valley (Pianura Padana or Val Padana is a major geographical feature of Italy. [52] In July, an embassy of centurions sent by Octavian entered Rome and demanded that he receive the consulship left vacant by Hirtius and Pansa. Centurion redirects here This article is about the Roman soldier [53] Octavian also demanded that the decree declaring Antony a public enemy should be rescinded. [52] When this was refused, he marched on the city with eight legions. [52] He encountered no military opposition in Rome, and on August 19, 43 BC was elected consul with his relative Quintus Pedius as co-consul. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 43 BC was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Quintus Pedius (? - late 43 BC was a Roman that lived during the late Roman Republic. [54][55] Meanwhile, Antony formed an alliance with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, another leading Caesarian. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ( Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVSborn ca 90 BC died 13 BC, was a Patrician Roman politician [56]
Second Triumvirate
The Roman Revolution
In a meeting near Bologna in October of 43 BC, Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed a junta called the Second Triumvirate. Bologna (boloɲa from Latin Bononia, Bulåggna in Bolognese dialect is the capital city of Emilia-Romagna in northern Italy A military dictatorship is a Form of government wherein the political power resides with the Military; it is similar but not identical to a Stratocracy, See also the Second Triumvirate (Argentina which held power in 1812 [58] This explicit arrogation of special powers lasting five years was then supported by law passed by the plebs, unlike the unofficial First Triumvirate formed by Gnaeus Pompey Magnus, Julius Caesar and Marcus Licinius Crassus. Plebs were the general body of landowners of Roman Citizens in Ancient Rome. See also the First Triumvirate (Argentina which came to power in 1811 Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca [59][58] The triumvirs then set in motion proscriptions in which 300 senators and 2,000 equites were branded as outlaws and deprived of their property and, for those who failed to escape, their lives. Not to be confused with prescription and other meanings of proscription. An outlaw or bandit is a person living the lifestyle of outlawry; the word literally means "outside the Law " by folk-etymology from the original [60] This decree issued by the triumvirate was motivated in part by a need to raise money to pay their troops' salaries for the upcoming conflict against Caesar's assassins, Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. For the Roman consul see Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 171 BC. [61] Rewards for their arrest gave incentive for Romans to capture those proscribed, while the assets and properties of those arrested were seized by the triumvirs. [60] This measure by the triumvirs went beyond a simple purge of those allied with the assassins. Octavian objected to enacting the proscriptions at first because he wanted to spare the life of his newfound ally Marcus Tullius Cicero (who was to be listed on the proscriptions). Marcus Tullius Cicero ( Classical Latin ˈkikeroː usually ˈsɪsərəʊ in English January 3, 106 BC &ndash December 7, 43 BC was a Roman [60] However, Antony's hatred of Cicero was unyielding, and Cicero fell victim to the occasion. [60] The death of so many republican senators allowed the triumvirs to fill their positions with their own supporters. This has been called the "Roman revolution" by twentieth-century historians; it had far-reaching implications in that it wiped out the old order and established a sturdy political foundation for the Augustan form of leadership to come. [62]
![A denarius minted circa 18 BCE. Obverse: CAESAR AVGVSTVS; reverse: DIVVSIVLIV[S] (DIVINE JULIUS).](http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/S0484.4.jpg/300px-S0484.4.jpg)
On January 1, 42 BC, the Senate recognised Caesar as a divinity of the Roman state, "Divus Iulius". New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 42 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. Octavian was able to further his cause by emphasizing the fact that he was Divi filius, "Son of God". [63] Antony and Octavian then sent 28 legions by sea to face the armies of Brutus and Cassius, who had built their base of power in Greece. For other uses see Legion The Roman Legion (from Latin legio "military levy Conscription," [62] After two battles at Philippi in Macedonia in October of 42, the Caesarian army was victorious and Brutus and Cassius committed suicide. The Battle of Philippi was the final battle in the Wars of the Second Triumvirate between the forces of Mark Antony and Octavian (the Second Triumvirate The Roman province of Macedonia was officially established in 146 BC, after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus defeated Andriscus of Macedon Marcus Junius Brutus (85&ndash42 BC or Quintus Servilius Caepio Brutus was a Roman senator of the late Roman Republic. For the Roman consul see Gaius Cassius Longinus (consul 171 BC. Mark Antony would later use the examples of these battles as a means to belittle Octavian, as both battles were decisively won with the use of Antony's forces. [64] In addition to claiming responsibility for both victories, Antony also branded Octavian as a coward for handing over his direct military control to Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa instead. Agrippa redirects here For other uses of the name see Agrippa (disambiguation. [64]
After Philippi, a new territorial arrangement was made among the members of the Second Triumvirate. While Antony would leave Gaul, the provinces of Hispania, and Italia in the hands of Octavian, Antony traveled east to Egypt where he allied himself with Queen Cleopatra VII, the former lover of Julius Caesar and mother of Caesar's infant son, Caesarion. Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Ptolemy XV Philopator Philometor Caesar, nicknamed Caesarion (little Caesar Greek: Πτολεμαῖος ΙΕʹ Φιλοπάτωρ Φιλομήτωρ Καῖσαρ Lepidus was left with the province of Africa, stymied by Antony who conceded Hispania to Octavian instead. The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. [65] Octavian was left to decide where in Italy to settle tens of thousands of veterans of the Macedonian campaign whom the triumvirs had promised to discharge. The tens of thousands who had fought on the republican side with Brutus and Cassius, who could easily ally with a political opponent of Octavian if not appeased, also required land. [65] There was no more government-controlled land to allot as settlements for their soldiers, so Octavian had to choose one of two options: alienating many Roman citizens by confiscating their land, or alienating many Roman soldiers who could mount a considerable opposition against him in the Roman heartland; Octavian chose the former. [66] There were as many as eighteen Roman towns affected by the new settlements, with entire populations driven out or at least given partial evictions. [67]
Rebellion and marriage alliances
Widespread dissatisfaction with Octavian over his soldiers' settlements encouraged many to rally at the side of Lucius Antonius, who was brother of Mark Antony and supported by a majority in the Senate. Another Lucius Antonius was a grandson to Mark Antony. Lucius Antonius ( 1st century BC) was the younger brother [67] Meanwhile, Octavian asked for a divorce from Clodia Pulchra, the daughter of Fulvia and her first husband Publius Clodius Pulcher. Clodia Pulchra, also known as Claudia (born 57 BC/56 BC was the daughter of Fulvia (later wife of Mark Antony) and her first husband Publius Clodius Fulvia (77 BC-40 BC was a Roman woman who lived in the 1st century BC Publius Clodius Pulcher (born around 92 BC died January 18, 52 BC was a Roman Politician of the Populares cause chiefly remembered for his Claiming that his marriage with Clodia had never been consummated, he returned her to her mother, Mark Antony's wife. Fulvia decided to take action. Together with Lucius Antonius she raised an army in Italy to fight for Antony's rights against Octavian. However, Lucius and Fulvia took a political and martial gamble in opposing Octavian, since the Roman army still depended on the triumvirs for their salaries. [67] Lucius and his allies ended up in a defensive siege at Perusia (modern Perugia), where Octavian forced them into surrender in early 40 BC. The ancient Perusia, now Perugia, first appears in history as one of the 12 confederate cities of Etruria. Perugia is the capital City of the region of Umbria in central Italy, near the Tiber river and the capital of the Province of Perugia [67] Lucius and his army were spared due to his kinship with Antony, the strongman of the East, while Fulvia was exiled to Sicyon. For the modern municipality see Sikyona. Sicyon (Σικυών was an ancient Greek city situated in the northern Peloponnesus [68] However, Octavian showed no mercy for the mass of allies loyal to Lucius; on March 15, the anniversary of Julius Caesar's assassination, he had 300 Roman senators and equestrians executed for allying with Lucius. [69] Perusia was also pillaged and burned as a warning for others. Perugia is the capital City of the region of Umbria in central Italy, near the Tiber river and the capital of the Province of Perugia [68] This bloody event somewhat sullied Octavian's career and was criticized by many, such as the Augustan poet Sextus Propertius. Sextus Aurelius Propertius was a Latin elegiac poet born around 50-45 BCE in Mevania (although other cities in the region of Umbria claim [69]
Sextus Pompeius, son of the first Triumvir and still a renegade general following Caesar's victory over Pompey, was established in Sicily and Sardinia as part of an agreement reached with the Second Triumvirate in 39 BC. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy. Sardinia (sɑrˈdɪnɪə Sardegna Sardigna or Sardinnya is the second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily) [70] Both Antony and Octavian were vying for an alliance with Pompeius, who was ironically a member of the republican party, not the Caesarian faction. [69] Octavian succeeded in a temporary alliance when in 40 BC he married Scribonia, a daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo who was a follower of Pompeius as well as his father-in-law. Scribonia (68 BC-16 was the daughter of Lucius Scribonius Libo and Cornelia Sulla (the daughter of Faustus Cornelius Sulla, the granddaughter of Pompey There were three men of Plebs status called Lucius Scribonius Libo who lived in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire who were members of the Gens [69] Scribonia conceived Octavian's only natural child, Julia, who was born the same day that he divorced Scribonia to marry Livia Drusilla, little more than a year after his marriage. Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA Livia Drusilla, after 14 AD called Julia Augusta ( Classical Latin: LIVIA•DRVSILLA IVLIA•AVGVSTA (58 BC-29 AD was the wife of [69]
While in Egypt, Antony had been engaged in an affair with Cleopatra that produced three children, Alexander Helios, Cleopatra Selene II and Ptolemy Philadelphus. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Alexander Helios ( Greek: ο Αλέξανδρος Ήλιος, 25 December 40 BC - between 29 BC - 25 BC was a Ptolemaic prince and was the eldest Cleopatra Selene II ( Greek: η Κλεοπάτρα Σελήνη, 25 December 40 BC - 6 AD) also known as Cleopatra VIII of Egypt Ptolemy Philadelphus (ο Πτολεμαίος Φιλάδελφος August/September 36 BC - 29 BC was a Ptolemaic Prince and was the youngest child of Greek Aware of his deteriorating relationship with Octavian, Antony left Cleopatra; he sailed to Italy in 40 BC with a large force to oppose Octavian, laying siege to Brundisium. Brindisi can also refer to a song in which a company is exhorted to drink such as the "Tea-Cup Brindisi" in Gilbert and Sullivan 's " The However, this new conflict proved untenable for both Octavian and Antony. Their centurions, who had become important figures politically, refused to fight due to their Caesarian cause, while the legions under their command followed suit. Centurion redirects here This article is about the Roman soldier [71][72] Meanwhile in Sicyon, Antony's wife Fulvia died of a sudden illness while Antony was en route to meet her. Fulvia's death and the mutiny of their centurions allowed the two remaining triumvirs to effect a reconciliation. [71][72] In the autumn of 40, Octavian and Antony approved the Treaty of Brundisium, by which Lepidus would remain in Africa, Antony in the East, Octavian in the West. The Italian peninsula was left open to all for the recruitment of soldiers, but in reality, this provision was useless for Antony in the East. [71] To further cement relations of alliance with Mark Antony, Octavian gave his sibling sister, Octavia Minor, in marriage to Antony in late 40 BC. Octavia Minor (69 - 11 BC also known as Octavia the Younger or simply Octavia, was the sister of the first Roman Emperor, Augustus (known also [71] During their marriage, Octavia gave birth to two daughters (known as Antonia Major and Antonia Minor). Antonia Major ( in Latin Antonia Maior, PIR2 A 884 (b August/September 39 BC also known as Antonia the Elder, was a daughter to Antonia Minor ( PIR2 A 885 also known as Antonia the Younger or simply Antonia ( 31 January 36 BC-September/October 37 was a
War with Pompeius
Sextus Pompeius threatened Octavian in Italy by denying to the peninsula shipments of grain through the Mediterranean; Pompeius' own son was put in charge as naval commander in the effort to cause widespread famine in Italy. Scylla (ˈsɪlə Σκύλλα Skulla) also known as Scylle (ˈsɪli Σκύλλη Skullē) was one [72] Pompeius' control over the sea prompted him to take on the name Neptuni filius, "son of Neptune. Neptune (Neptūnus is the god of water and the sea in Roman mythology, a brother of Jupiter and Pluto. "[73] A temporary peace agreement was reached in 39 with the treaty of Misenum; the blockade on Italy was lifted once Octavian granted Pompeius Sardinia, Corsica, Sicily, the Peloponnese, and an ensured future position as consul for the year 35. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily The Peloponnese or Peloponnesus ( Greek: Πελοπόννησος Pelopónnisos; see also List of Greek place names) is a large Peninsula [73][72] The territorial agreement amongst the triumvirs and Sextus Pompeius began to crumble once Octavian divorced Scribonia and married Livia on January 17, 38 BC. Events 38 BC - Octavian marries Livia Drusilla. 1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades Minorca Year 38 BC was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [74] One of Pompeius' naval commanders betrayed him and handed over Corsica and Sardinia to Octavian; however, Octavian needed Antony's support to attack Pompeius, so an agreement was reached with the Second Triumvirate's extension for another five-year period beginning in 37. [75][76] Antony in supporting Octavian expected to gain support for his own campaign against Parthia, desiring to avenge Rome's defeat at Carrhae in 53. The Battle of Carrhae in 53 BC was a decisive victory for the Parthian Spahbod Surena over the Roman general Crassus near [76] In an agreement reached at Tarentum, Antony provided 120 ships for Octavian to use against Pompeius, while Octavian was to send 20,000 legionaries to Antony for use against Parthia. Not to be confused with Toronto. Taranto ( Ancient Greek: Tarās; Modern Greek: Tarantas) is a coastal city in The Roman legionary was a professional soldier of the Roman army after the Marian reforms of 107 BC. [77] However, Octavian sent only a tenth the number of those promised, an intentional provocation that Antony would not forget six years later when they faced each other in battle. [77]
Octavian and Lepidus launched a joint operation against Sextus in Sicily in 36. [78] Despite setbacks for Octavian, the naval fleet of Sextus Pompeius was almost entirely destroyed on September 3, 36 BC by general Agrippa at the naval battle of Naulochus. Events 36 BC - In the Battle of Naulochus, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, Admiral of Octavian, defeats Sextus Pompeius Year 36 BC was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. The naval Battle of Naulochus was fought on 3 September 36 BC between the fleets of Sextus Pompeius and Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, off [79] Sextus fled with his remaining forces to the east, where he was captured and executed in Miletus by one of Antony's generals the following year. Miletus (mī lē' təs ( Ancient Greek: Μίλητος literally Transliterated Milētos, Latin Miletus) was an Ancient [79] Both Lepidus and Octavian gathered the surrendered troops of Pompeius, yet Lepidus felt empowered enough to claim Sicily for himself, ordering Octavian to leave. [79] However, Lepidus' troops deserted him and defected to Octavian since they were weary of fighting and found Octavian's promises of money to be enticing. [79] Lepidus surrendered to Octavian and was permitted to retain the office of pontifex maximus (head of the college of priests), but was ejected from the Triumvirate, his public career at an end, and was effectively exiled to a villa at Cape Circei in Italy. The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. A villa was originally an Upper-class Country house, though since its origins in Roman times the idea and function of a villa has evolved considerably [80][79] The Roman dominions were now divided between Octavian in the West and Antony in the East. To maintain peace and stability in his portion of the Empire, Octavian ensured Rome's citizens of their rights to property. This time he settled his discharged soldiers outside of Italy while returning 30,000 slaves to former Roman owners that had previously fled to Pompeius to join his army and navy. [81] To ensure his own safety and that of Livia and Octavia once he returned to Rome, Octavian had the Senate grant him, his wife, and his sister tribunal immunity, or sacrosanctitas. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the Sovereign immunity, or crown immunity, is a type of immunity that in Common law Jurisdictions traces its origins from early English law [82]
War with Antony
Meanwhile, Antony's campaign against Parthia turned disastrous, tarnishing his image as a leader, while the mere 2,000 legionaries sent by Octavian to Antony were hardly enough to replenish his forces. The final war of the Roman Republic, also know as Antony's civil war or the' war between Antony and Octavian', was last of the Roman civil wars of the Sir Lawrence Alma-Tadema, OM, RA ( January 8, 1836, Dronrijp, the Netherlands. [83] On the other hand, Cleopatra could restore his army to full strength, and since he was already engaged in a romantic affair with her, he decided to send Octavia back to Rome. [84] Although Antony had the interests of rebuilding his military in mind, this act played right into the hands of Octavian, who spread propaganda implying that Antony was becoming less than Roman because he rejected a legitimate Roman spouse for an "Oriental paramour". Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people An intimate relationship is a particularly close Interpersonal relationship. [85] In 36 BC, Octavian used a political ploy to make himself look less autocratic and Antony more the villain by proclaiming that the civil wars were coming to an end, and that he would step down as triumvir if only Antony would do the same; Antony refused. [86] After Roman troops captured Armenia in 34 BC, Antony made his son Alexander Helios the ruler of Armenia; he also awarded the title "Queen of Kings" to Cleopatra, acts which Octavian used to convince the Roman Senate that Antony had ambitions to diminish the preeminence of Rome. Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani [85] When Octavian became consul once again on January 1, 33 BC, he opened the following session in the Senate with a vehement attack on Antony's grants of titles and territories to his relatives and to his queen. [87] Defecting consuls and senators rushed over to the side of Antony in disbelief of the propaganda (which turned out to be true), yet so did able ministers desert Antony for Octavian in the autumn of 32 BC. [88] These defectors, Munatius Plancus and Marcus Titius, gave Octavian the information he needed to confirm with the Senate all the accusations he made against Antony. [89] By storming the sanctuary of the Vestal Virgins, Octavian forced their chief priestess to hand over Antony's secret will, which would have given away Roman-conquered territories as kingdoms for his sons to rule, alongside plans to build a tomb in Alexandria for him and his queen to reside upon their deaths. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια [90][91] In late 32 BC, the Senate officially revoked Antony's powers as consul and declared war on Cleopatra's regime in Egypt. [92][93]
Octavian gained a preliminary victory in early 31 BC when the navy under command of Agrippa successfully ferried their troops across the Adriatic Sea. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony [94] While Agrippa cut off Antony and Cleopatra's main force from their supply routes at sea, Octavian landed on the mainland opposite the island of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and marched south. Corfu (Κέρκυρα Kérkyra, ˈkʲe̞ɾkʲiɾa Κέρκυρα or Κόρκυρα Corcyra Corfù is a Greek island in the Ionian Sea [94] Trapped on land and sea, deserters of Antony's army fled to Octavian's side daily while Octavian's forces were comfortable enough to make preparations. [94] In a desperate attempt to break free of the naval blockade, Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece. Actium (modern name Punta was the ancient name of a promontory of western Greece in northwestern Acarnania, at the mouth of the Sinus Ambracius ( Gulf of Arta It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders Agrippa and Gaius Sosius in the battle of Actium on September 2, 31 BC. Gaius Sosius, was a Roman general and politician Gaius Sosius was elected Quaestor in 66 BC and Praetor in 49 BC. The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Year 31 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [95] Antony and his remaining forces were only spared due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby. [96] Octavian pursued them, and after another defeat in Alexandria on August 1, 30 BC, Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide; Antony fell on his own sword and into Cleopatra's arms, while she let a poisonous snake bite her. Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Year 30 BC was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. [97] Having exploited his position as Caesar's heir to further his own political career Octavian was only too well aware of the dangers in allowing another to do so and, reportedly commenting that "two Caesars are one too many", he ordered Caesarion to be killed whilst sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony. [98][99]
Although his methods were cruel, it was Mark Antony who flaunted the child as the legitimate heir of the deified Julius Caesar, hence weakening the credibility of Octavian to hold that entitlement legitimately. [100] Octavian had previously shown little mercy to military combatants and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium. [101]
Octavian becomes Augustus
After Actium and the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra, Octavian was in a position to rule the entire Republic under an unofficial principate. The Principate is the first period of the Roman Empire, extending from the beginning of the reign of Caesar Augustus to the Crisis of the Third Century, [102] However, Octavian would have to achieve this through incremental gaining of power, courting the Senate and people, while upholding republican traditions of Rome to appear that he was not aiming for dictatorship or monarchy. [103][104] Marching into Rome, Octavian and Marcus Agrippa were elected as dual consuls by the Senate. Consul (abbrev cos; Latin plural consules) was the highest elected office of the Roman Republic and an appointive office under the Empire [105] Years of civil war had left Rome in a state of near-lawlessness, but the Republic was not prepared to accept the control of Octavian as a despot. Despot (from δεσπότης despotēs; plural δέσποτες despotes; feminine δέσποινα despoina; in Bulgarian and Serbian At the same time, Octavian could not simply give up his authority without risking further civil wars amongst the Roman generals, and even if he desired no position of authority whatsoever, his position demanded that he look to the well-being of the city of Rome and the Roman provinces. Octavian's aims from this point forward were to return Rome to a state of stability, traditional legality, and civility by lifting the overt political pressure imposed upon the courts of law and ensuring free elections, in name at least. [106]
First settlement
In 27 BC, Octavian formally returned full power to the Roman Senate and relinquished his control of the Roman provinces and their armies. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome. [105] However, under the consulship of Octavian, the Senate had little power in initiating legislation by introducing bills for senatorial debate. For other uses see Bill. A bill is a proposed new law introduced within a Legislature that has not been ratified, adopted [105] Although Octavian was no longer in direct control of the provinces and their armies, he retained the loyalty of active duty soldiers and veterans alike. [105] The careers of many clients and adherents depended on his patronage, as his financial power in the Roman Republic was unrivaled. [105] The historian Werner Eck states of Augustus:
The sum of his power derived first of all from various powers of office delegated to him by the Senate and people, secondly from his immense private fortune, and thirdly from numerous patron-client relationships he established with individuals and groups throughout the Empire. All of them taken together formed the basis of his auctoritas, which he himself emphasized as the foundation of his political actions. [107]
To a large extent, the public was aware of the vast financial resources Augustus commanded. When Augustus failed to encourage enough senators to finance the building and maintenance of networks of roads in Italy, he took over direct responsibility of building roads in 20 BC. [108] His construction of roads was publicized on the Roman currency issued in 16 BC, after he donated vast amounts of money to the aerarium Saturni, the public treasury. Aerarium (from Latin "aes" in its derived sense of "money" was the name (in full "aerarium stabulum" - treasure-house given in Ancient Rome [108]
According to H. H. Scullard, however, Augustus' power was based on the exercise of "…a predominant military power and that the ultimate sanction of his authority was force, however much the fact was disguised. "[109]
The Senate proposed to Octavian, the cherished victor of Rome's civil wars, to once again assume command of the provinces. The senate proposal was a ratification of Octavian's extra-constitutional power. Through the senate, Octavian was able to continue the appearance of a still-functional constitution of the Roman Republic. The Constitution of the Roman Republic or Mos maiorum (Latin for "customs of the ancestors" was an unwritten set of guidelines and principles Whilst putting on the appearance of reluctance he accepted a ten year responsibility of overseeing provinces that were considered to be in a somewhat chaotic state. [110][111] The provinces ceded to him to pacify within the promised ten year period comprised much of the conquered Roman world, including all of Hispania and Gaul, Syria, Cilicia, Cyprus, and Egypt. Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Syria was a Roman province, conquered in 64 BC by Pompey, as a consequence of his military presence after pursing victory in the Third Mithridatic Geography Cilicia extended along the Aegean coast east from Pamphylia, to Mount Amanus ( Gavurdağı Mount) which separated it from Syria Cyprus (Κύπρος transliterated: Kýpros,; Kıbrıs officially the Republic of Cyprus (Κυπριακή Δημοκρατία Kypriakī́ Dīmokratía Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire [110][112] Moreover, command over these provinces provided Octavian with control over the majority of Rome's legions. [112][113] While Octavian acted as consul in Rome, he dispatched senators to the provinces under his command as his representatives to manage provincial affairs and ensure his orders were carried out. [113] On the other hand, the provinces not under Octavian's control were overseen by governors chosen by the Roman Senate. [113] Octavian became the most powerful political figure in the city of Rome and in most of its provinces, yet he did not have a sole monopoly on political and martial power. [114] The Senate still controlled North Africa, an important regional producer of grain, as well as Illyria and Macedonia, two martially strategic regions with several legions. Ancient Roman agriculture was highly regarded in Roman culture Illyria ( Albanian Iliria ( Ancient Greek; Latin Illyria; see also Illyricum) was in Classical antiquity a region in the [114] However, with control of only five or six legions distributed amongst three senatorial proconsuls, compared to the 20 legions under the control of Augustus, the Senate's control of these regions did not amount to any political or martial challenge to Octavian. [103][109] The Senate's control over some of the Roman provinces helped maintain a republican facade for the autocratic Principate. [103] Also, Octavian's control of entire provinces for the objective of securing peace and creating stability followed a Republican era precedence, with prominent Romans such as Pompey being granted similar military powers in times of crisis and instability. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation [103]
In January of 27 BC, the Senate gave Octavian the new titles of Augustus and Princeps. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman The Latin word Princeps (plural principes) means exactly 'a prime' [115] Augustus, from the Latin word Augere (meaning to increase), can be translated as "the illustrious one". [101] It was a title of religious rather than political authority. [101] According to Roman religious beliefs, the title symbolized a stamp of authority over humanity—and in fact nature—that went beyond any constitutional definition of his status. After the harsh methods employed in consolidating his control, the change in name would also serve to demarcate his benign reign as Augustus from his reign of terror as Octavian. His new title of Augustus was also more favorable than Romulus, the previous one he styled for himself in reference to the story of Romulus and Remus (founders of Rome), which would symbolize a second founding of Rome. Romulus (c 771 BC– c 717 BC and Remus (c 771 BC–c 753 BC are the traditional founders of Rome, appearing in Roman mythology [101] However, the title of Romulus was associated too strongly with notions of monarchy and kingship, an image Octavian tried to avoid. [101] Princeps, comes from the Latin phrase primum caput, "the first head", originally meaning the oldest or most distinguished senator whose name would appear first on the senatorial roster; in the case of Augustus it became an almost regnal title for a leader who was first in charge. A roster can be a list of people and the times when they are required to work [116][4] Princeps had also been a title under the Republic for those who had served the state well; for example, Pompey had held the title. Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus, commonly known as Pompey /'pɑmpi/ Pompey the Great or Pompey the Triumvir ( Classical Latin abbreviation Augustus also styled himself as Imperator Caesar divi filius, "Commander Caesar son of the deified one". [115] With this title he not only boasted his familial link to deified Julius Caesar, but the use of Imperator signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. [115] The word Caesar was merely a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, yet Augustus transformed Caesar into a new family line that began with him. The cognomen (plural cognomina) was originally the third name of an Ancient Roman in the Roman naming convention. Julius (fem Julia) is the Nomen of the gens Julia, an important Patrician family of Ancient Rome supposed to have descended from [115]
Augustus was granted the right to hang the corona civica, the "civic crown" made from oak, above his door and have laurels drape his doorposts. The Civic Crown ( Latin: corona civica) was a Chaplet of common Oak leaves woven to form a crown. [114] This crown was usually held above the head of a Roman general during a triumph, with the individual holding the crown charged to continually repeat "memento mori", or, "Remember, you are mortal", to the triumphant general. A Roman triumph ( la [[wikttriumphus triumphus]], Old Latin la triumpus, attested as the exclamation la TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via Memento mori is a Latin phrase that may be translated as "Remember that you are mortal" "Remember you will die" "Remember that you must Additionally, laurel wreaths were important in several state ceremonies, and crowns of laurel were rewarded to champions of athletic, racing, and dramatic contests. Thus, both the laurel and the oak were integral symbols of Roman religion and statecraft; placing them on Augustus' doorposts was tantamount to declaring his home the capital. However, Augustus renounced flaunting insignia of power such as holding a scepter, wearing a diadem, or wearing the golden crown and purple toga of his predecessor Julius Caesar. A sceptre or scepter is a symbolic ornamental staff held by a ruling Monarch, a prominent item of royal Regalia. A diadem is a type of crown, specifically an ornamental headband worn by Eastern monarchs and others as a badge of royalty This article is about the aviation term for the Roman garment see Toga. [117] If he refused to symbolize his power by donning and bearing these items on his person, the Senate nonetheless awarded him with a golden shield displayed in the meeting hall of the Curia, bearing the inscription virtus, pietas, clementia, iustitia—"valor, piety, clemency, and justice. A Curia in early Roman times was a subdivision of the people i "[114][4]
Second settlement
In 23 BC, there was a political crisis that involved Augustus' co-consul Terentius Varro Murena, who was part of a conspiracy against Augustus. The exact details of the conspiracy are unknown, yet Murena did not serve a full term as consul before Calpurnius Piso was elected to replace him. [118][119] Piso was a well known member of the republican faction, and serving as co-consul with him was another means by Augustus to show his willingness to make concessions and cooperate with all political parties. [120] In the late spring Augustus suffered a severe illness, and on his supposed deathbed made arrangements that would put in doubt the senators' suspicions of his anti-republicanism. [118][121] Augustus prepared to hand down his signet ring to his favored general Agrippa. A seal can mean a wax seal bearing an impressed figure or an embossed figure in paper with the purpose of authenticating a document but the term can also mean any device for [118][121] However, Augustus handed over to his co-consul Piso all of his official documents, an account of public finances, and authority over listed troops in the provinces while Augustus' supposedly favored nephew Marcus Claudius Marcellus came away empty-handed. Marcus Claudius Marcellus (42-23 BC was the eldest son of Octavia Minor, sister of Augustus, and Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, a former consul [118][121] This was a surprise to many who believed Augustus would have named an heir to his position as an unofficial emperor. [122] Augustus bestowed only properties and possessions to his designated heirs, as a system of institutionalized imperial inheritance would have provoked resistance and hostility amongst the republican-minded Romans fearful of monarchy. [104]
Soon after his bout of illness subsided, Augustus gave up his permanent consulship. Onyx is a Cryptocrystalline form of Quartz. The colors of its bands range from white to almost every color (save some shades such as purple or blue [121] The only other times Augustus would serve as consul would be in the years 5 and 2 BC. [121][123] Although he had resigned as consul, Augustus retained his consular imperium, leading to a second compromise between him and the Senate known as the Second Settlement. Imperium in a broad sense translates as power. In Ancient Rome the concept applied to People, and meant something like "power [124] This was a clever ploy by Augustus; by stepping down as one of two consuls, this allowed aspiring senators a better chance to fill that position, while at the same time Augustus could "exercise wider patronage within the senatorial class. "[125] Augustus was no longer in an official position to rule the state, yet his dominant position over the Roman provinces remained unchanged as he became a proconsul. Ancient Rome In the Roman Republic, a proconsul was a Promagistrate (like a Propraetor) who after serving as Consul, spent a year [121][126] As an earlier consul he had the power to intervene, when he deemed necessary, with the affairs of provincial proconsuls appointed by the Senate. [127] As a proconsul Augustus did not want this authority of overriding provincial governors to be stripped from him, so imperium proconsulare maius, or "power over all the proconsuls" was granted to Augustus by the Senate. [124]
Augustus was also granted the power of a tribune (tribunicia potestas) for life, though not the official title of tribune. Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the [124] Legally it was closed to patricians, a status that Augustus had acquired years ago when adopted by Julius Caesar. The term " patrician " originally referred to a group of elite families in Ancient Rome, including both their natural and [125] This allowed him to convene the Senate and people at will and lay business before it, veto the actions of either the Assembly or the Senate, preside over elections, and the right to speak first at any meeting. [123][128] Also included in Augustus' tribunician authority were powers usually reserved for the Roman censor; these included the right to supervise public morals and scrutinize laws to ensure they were in the public interest, as well as the ability to hold a census and determine the membership of the Senate. A Censor was a magistrate of high rank in the ancient Roman Republic. A census is the procedure of acquiring information about every member of a given population [129] With the powers of a censor, Augustus appealed to virtues of Roman patriotism by banning all other attire besides the classic toga while entering the Forum. This article is about the aviation term for the Roman garment see Toga. [130] There was no precedent within the Roman system for combining the powers of the tribune and the censor into a single position, nor was Augustus ever elected to the office of censor. [131] Julius Caesar had been granted similar powers, wherein he was charged with supervising the morals of the state, however this position did not extend to the censor's ability to hold a census and determine the Senate's roster. The office of the tribune plebis began to lose its prestige due to Augustus' amassing of tribunal powers, so he revived its importance by making it a mandatory appointment for any plebeian desiring the praetorship. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before [132]
In addition to tribunician authority, Augustus was granted sole imperium within the city of Rome itself: all armed forces in the city, formerly under the control of the prefects and consuls, were now under the sole authority of Augustus. Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: "make in front" i [133] With maius imperium proconsulare, Augustus was the only individual able to receive a triumph as he was ostensibly the head of every Roman army. A Roman triumph ( la [[wikttriumphus triumphus]], Old Latin la triumpus, attested as the exclamation la TRIVMPE in the Carmen Arvale; via [134] In 19 BC, Lucius Cornelius Balbus, governor of Africa who defeated the Garamantes, was the first man of provincial origin to receive this award, as well as the last. Lucius Cornelius Balbus (called Minor to distinguish from his uncle) received the Roman citizenship at the same time as his uncle The Garamantes were a Saharan Berber -speaking people who used an elaborate underground Irrigation system and founded a kingdom in the Fezzan [134] For every following Roman victory the credit was given to Augustus, due to the fact that Rome's armies were commanded by the legatus, who were deputies of the princeps in the provinces. A legatus (often anglicized as legate) was a general in the Roman army, equivalent to a modern general officer [134] Augustus' eldest son by marriage to Livia, Tiberius, was the only exception to this rule when he received a triumph for victories in Germania in 7 BC. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Germania was the Latin Exonym for [135] Ensuring that his status of maius imperium proconsulare was renewed in 13 BC, Augustus stayed in Rome during the renewal process and provided veterans with lavish donations to gain their support. [123]
Many of the political subtleties of the Second Settlement seem to have evaded the comprehension of the Plebeian class. When Augustus failed to stand for election as consul in 22 BC, fears arose once again that Augustus was being forced from power by the aristocratic Senate. In 22, 21, and 19 BC, the people rioted in response, and only allowed a single consul to be elected for each of those years, ostensibly to leave the other position open for Augustus. [136] In 22 BC there was a food shortage in Rome which sparked panic, while many urban plebs called for Augustus to take on dictatorial powers to personally oversee the crisis. [123] After a theatrical display of refusal before the Senate, Augustus finally accepted authority over Rome's grain supply "by virtue of his proconsular imperium", and ended the crisis almost immediately. [123] It was not until AD 8 that a food crisis of this sort prompted Augustus to establish a praefectus annonae, a permanent prefect who was in charge of procuring food supplies for Rome. [137] In 19 BC, the Senate voted to allow Augustus to wear the consul's insignia in public and before the Senate,[133] as well as sit in the symbolic chair between the two consuls and hold the fasces, an emblem of consular authority. Fasces (ˈfæsiːz a Plurale tantum, from the Latin word fascis, meaning "bundle" symbolize summary power and Jurisdiction [138] Like his tribune authority, the granting of consular powers to him was another instance of holding power of offices he did not actually hold. [138] This seems to have assuaged the populace; regardless of whether or not Augustus was actually a consul, the importance was that he appeared as one before the people. On March 6, 12 BC, after the death of Lepidus, he additionally took up the position of pontifex maximus, the high priest of the collegium of the Pontifices, the most important position in Roman religion. Events 1079 - Omar Khayyám completes the Iranian calendar. 1454 - Thirteen Years' War: Delegates of Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ( Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVSborn ca 90 BC died 13 BC, was a Patrician Roman politician The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. [139][140] On February 5, 2 BC, Augustus was also given the title pater patriae, or "father of the country". Events 1576 - Henry of Navarre converts to Roman Catholicism in order to ensure his right to the throne of France. Year 2 BC was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Pater Patriae (plural Patres Patriae) also seen as Parens Patriae, is a Latin Honorific meaning " Father [141][142]
Later Roman Emperors would generally be limited to the powers and titles originally granted to Augustus, though often, to display humility, newly-appointed Emperors would often decline one or more of the honorifics given to Augustus. Just as often, as their reign progressed, Emperors would appropriate all of the titles, regardless of whether they had actually been granted them by the Senate. The civic crown, which later Emperors took to actually wearing, consular insignia, and later the purple robes of a Triumphant general (toga picta) became the imperial insignia well into the Byzantine era. This article is about the aviation term for the Roman garment see Toga.
War and expansion under Augustus
- Further information: Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids
Imperator Caesar Divi Filius Augustus chose Imperator, "victorious commander" to be his first name, since he wanted to make the notion of victory associated with him emphatically clear. Relations during the Republic The first direct contact between the Republic and the Parthians was c Year 31 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs [143] By the year 13, Augustus boasted 21 occasions where his troops proclaimed "imperator" as his title after a successful battle. [143] Almost the entire fourth chapter in his publicly-released memoirs of achievements known as the Res Gestae was devoted to his military victories and honors. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus [143] Pandering to Roman patriots, Augustus promoted the ideal of a superior Roman civilization with a task of ruling the world (the extent to which the Romans knew it), embodied in the phrase tu regere imperio populos, Romane, memento—"Roman, remember by your strength to rule the earth's peoples!"[130] This fit well with the Roman elite and the wider public opinion of the day which favored expansionism, reflected in a statement by the famous Roman poet Virgil who said that the gods had granted Rome imperium sine fine, "sovereignty without limit". Publius Vergilius Maro ( October 15, 70 BCE &ndash September 21, 19 BCE later called Virgilius, and known in English as Virgil or [144] There was public disappointment and regret for not avenging Crassus' captured battle standards when Augustus decided that the Middle Eastern power of Parthia should not be invaded. Marcus Licinius Crassus ( Latin: M·LICINIVS·P·F·P·N·CRASSVS (ca Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran [145] However, there were many other viable lands to be conquered.
By the end of his reign, the armies of Augustus had conquered northern Hispania (modern Spain and Portugal),[146] the Alpine regions of Raetia and Noricum (modern Switzerland, Bavaria, Austria, Slovenia),[146] Illyricum and Pannonia (modern Albania, Croatia, Hungary, Serbia, etc. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Hispania was the name given by the Romans to the whole of the Iberian Peninsula (modern Portugal, Spain, Andorra, Gibraltar Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. Raetia (so always in inscriptions classical manuscripts usually use the form Rhaetia) was a province of the Roman Empire, bounded on the west by the country Noricum, in ancient Geography, was a Celtic kingdom (perhaps better described as a federation of by tradition twelve tribes stretching over the area of The Roman province of Illyricum replaced the formerly independent kingdom of Illyria. Pannonia is an ancient province of the Roman Empire bounded north and east by the Danube, coterminous westward with Noricum and upper Italy, ),[146] and extended the borders of the Africa Province to the east and south. The Roman province of Africa was established after the Romans defeated Carthage in the Third Punic War. [146] After the reign of the client king Herod the Great (73–4 BC), Judea was added to the province of Syria when Augustus deposed his successor Herod Archelaus. Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs Herod (הוֹרְדוֹס Horodos, Greek: Herōdes) also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (73 BC – 4 BC in Jericho Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Syria was a Roman province, conquered in 64 BC by Pompey, as a consequence of his military presence after pursing victory in the Third Mithridatic Herod Archelaus (23 BC – c 18 AD was the Ethnarch of Samaria, Judea, and Edom from 4 BC to 6 AD [146] Like Egypt which had been conquered after the defeat of Antony in 30 BC, Syria was governed not by a proconsul or legate of Augustus, but a high prefect of the equestrian class. [146] Again, no military effort was needed in 25 BC when Galatia (modern Turkey) was converted to a Roman province shortly after Amyntas of Galatia was killed by an avenging widow of a slain prince from Homonada. Ancient Galatia was an area in the highlands of central Anatolia in modern Turkey. Amyntas (from the Greek transcription Ἀμύντας) Tetrarch of the Trocmi was a King of Galatia and several of [146] When the rebellious tribes of Cantabria in modern-day Spain were finally quelled in 19 BC, the territory fell under the provinces of Hispania and Lusitania. Cantabria is a Spanish province and Autonomous community with Santander as its capital city This article concerns the Roman province For the ship see RMS Lusitania. [147] This region proved to be a major asset in funding Augustus' future military campaigns, as it was rich in mineral deposits that could be fostered in Roman mining projects, especially the very rich gold deposits at Las Medulas for example. Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Las Médulas, located near the town of Ponferrada in León province, Spain, used to be the most important Gold mine in the Roman [147]
Conquering the peoples of the Alps in 16 BC was another important victory for Rome since it provided a large territorial buffer between the Roman citizens of Italy and Rome's enemies in Germania to the north. Germania was the Latin Exonym for [148] The poet Horace dedicated an ode to the victory, while the monument Trophy of Augustus near Monaco was built to honor the occasion. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace The Trophy of the Alps or Trophy of Augustus was built by the Roman emperor Augustus to celebrate his definitive victory over the ancient For other uses see Monaco (disambiguation Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco ( French: Principauté de Monaco; Monégasque [149] The capture of the Alpine region also served the next offensive in 12 BC, when Tiberius began the offensive against the Pannonian tribes of Illyricum and his brother Nero Claudius Drusus against the Germanic tribes of the eastern Rhineland. Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, born Decimus Claudius Drusus (the date of his name change is unknown and variously called Drusus, Drusus I, Nero The Rhineland ( Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. [150] Both campaigns were successful, as Drusus' forces reached the Elbe River by 9 BC, yet he died shortly after by falling off his horse. The Elbe ( die Elbe Low German: de Ilv) is one of the major Rivers of Central Europe. [150] It was recorded that the pious Tiberius walked in front of his brother's body all the way back to Rome. [151]
To protect the eastern areas of the Empire from the Parthian threat, Augustus relied on the client states of the east to act as territorial buffers and areas which could raise their own troops for defense. "Gold mine" redirects here See Goldmine for other uses of the term Las Médulas, located near the town of Ponferrada in León province, Spain, used to be the most important Gold mine in the Roman Client state is one of several terms used to describe the subordination of one state to a more powerful state in international affairs A buffer state is a Country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers, which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them [152] To ensure security of the Empire's eastern flank, Augustus stationed a Roman army in Syria just in case, while his skilled stepson Tiberius negotiated with the Parthians as Rome's diplomat to the East. [152] One of Tiberius' greatest diplomatic achievements was negotiating for the return of Crassus' battle standards, a symbolic victory and great boost of morale for Rome. [152][151] Tiberius was also responsible for restoring Tigranes V to the throne of Armenia. Tigranes V (flourished 1st century BC & 1st century) was a prince of Jewish Armenian Nabataean and Edomite origin The Kingdom of Armenia (or Greater Armenia) was an independent kingdom from 190 BC to AD 387 and a client state of the Roman and Persian empires until [151]
Although Parthia always posed a threat to Rome in the east, the real battlefront was along the Rhine and Danube rivers. The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge The Danube (In Donau from earlier Danuvius, Celtic *dānu, meaning "to flow run" Slovak and Polish Dunaj [152] Before the final fight with Antony, Octavian's campaigns against the tribes in Dalmatia was the first step in expanding Roman dominions to the Danube. Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern [153] Victory in battle was not always a permanent success, as newly conquered territories were constantly retaken by Rome's enemies in Germania. [152] A prime example of Roman loss in battle was the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in AD 9, where three out of nine legions led by Publius Quinctilius Varus were destroyed with few survivors by Arminius, leader of the Cherusci. The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest took place in the year 9 A Arminius, also known as Armin or Hermann (18 BC/17 BC - AD 21) was a chieftain of the Cherusci who defeated a Roman army in the The Cherusci (Cherusker were a Germanic tribe that inhabited parts of the northern Rhine valley and the plains and forests of northwestern Germany, in [154] Augustus retaliated by dispatching Tiberius and Drusus to the Rhineland to pacify it, which was a huge success in AD 13. [155][156] The Roman general Germanicus took advantage of a Cherusci civil war between Arminius and Segestes; they defeated Arminius, who fled that battle but was killed later in 19 due to treachery. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) Segestes was a noble of the Germanic tribe of the Cherusci involved in the events surrounding the Roman attempts to conquer northern Germany during the reign of Roman Emperor [157]
Death and succession
The illness of Augustus in 23 BC brought the problem of succession to the forefront of political issues and the public. To ensure stability, he needed to designate an heir to his unique position in Roman society and government. This was to be achieved in small, undramatic, and incremental ways that did not stir senatorial fears of monarchy. [158] If someone was to succeed his unofficial position of power, they were going to have to earn it through their own publicly-known merits. [158] Some Augustan historians argue that indications pointed toward his sister's son Marcellus, who had been quickly married to Augustus' daughter Julia the Elder. Marcus Claudius Marcellus (42-23 BC was the eldest son of Octavia Minor, sister of Augustus, and Gaius Claudius Marcellus Minor, a former consul Julia the Elder (October 39 BC - 14 known to her contemporaries as Julia Caesaris filia or Julia Augusti filia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS•FILIA [159] Other historians dispute this due to Augustus' will read aloud to the Senate while he was seriously ill in 23 BC,[160] instead indicating a preference for Marcus Agrippa, who was Augustus' second in charge and arguably the only one of his associates who could have controlled the legions and held the Empire together. Agrippa redirects here For other uses of the name see Agrippa (disambiguation. [161] After the death of Marcellus in 23 BC, Augustus married his daughter to Agrippa. This union produced five children, three sons and two daughters: Gaius Caesar, Lucius Caesar, Vipsania Julia, Agrippina the Elder, and Postumus Agrippa, so named because he was born after Marcus Agrippa died. See also Gaius Julius Caesar, for others of the same name Gaius Julius Caesar (20 BC - AD 4 most commonly known as Julius Caesar, was For other men named Lucius (Julius Caesar see Lucius Julius Caesar Lucius Julius Caesar (17 BC-2 most commonly known as Lucius Caesar Julia Minor ( Minor Latin for the younger) or Julilla (little Julia ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•MINOR 19 BC-28 or early 29 Julia Vipsania Agrippina ( Classical Latin: AGRIPPINA•GERMANICI (14 BC – 18 October 33) most commonly known as Agrippina Major Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus (12 BC-14 also known as Agrippa Postumus or Postumus Agrippa, was a son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the Shortly after the Second Settlement, Agrippa was granted a five-year term of administering the eastern half of the Empire with the imperium of a proconsul and the same tribunicia potestas granted to Augustus (although not trumping Augustus' authority), his seat of governance stationed at Samos in the Cyclades. Samos (Σάμος is a Greek island in the North Aegean Sea, south of Chios, north of Patmos and the Dodecanese, and off The CYCLADES Packet switching network was an extremely influential French network system in the early 1970s similar to the ARPANET. [162][161] Although this granting of power would have shown Augustus' favor for Agrippa, it was also a measure to please members of his Caesarian party by allowing one of their members to share a considerable amount of power with him. [162]
Augustus' intent to make Gaius and Lucius Caesar his heirs was apparent when he adopted them as his own children, and personally ushered them into their political careers by serving as consul with each in 5 and 2 BC. [121] Augustus also showed favor to his stepsons, Livia's children from her first marriage, Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus and Tiberius Claudius, granting them military commands and public office, and seeming to favor Drusus. Nero Claudius Drusus Germanicus, born Decimus Claudius Drusus (the date of his name change is unknown and variously called Drusus, Drusus I, Nero Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman However, Drusus' marriage to Antonia, Augustus' niece, was a relationship far too embedded within the family to disturb over succession issues. [163] After Agrippa died in 12 BC, Livia's son Tiberius was ordered to divorce his own wife Vipsania and marry Agrippa's widow, Augustus' daughter Julia—as soon as a period of mourning for Agrippa had ended. [163] While Drusus' marriage to Antonia was considered an unbreakable affair, Vipsania was "only" the daughter of the late Agrippa from his first marriage. [163]
Tiberius shared in Augustus' tribune powers as of 6 BC, but shortly thereafter went into retirement, reportedly wanting no further role in politics while he exiled himself to Rhodes. The Mausoleum of Augustus was a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome. Rhodes (Ρόδος Ródos, ˈɾo̞ðo̞s Rodi ردوس Rodos; Ladino: Rodi or Rodes) is a Greek island [135][164] Although no specific reason is known for his departure, it could have been a culmination of reasons, including a failing marriage with Julia. [135][164] It could very well have been from feelings of jealousy and being left out since Augustus' young grandchildren-turned-sons, Gaius and Lucius, joined the college of priests at an early age, were presented to spectators in a more favorable light, and were introduced to the army in Gaul. [165][166] After the early deaths of both Lucius and Gaius in AD 2 and 4 respectively, and the earlier death of his brother Drusus (9 BC), Tiberius was recalled to Rome in June AD 4, where he was adopted by Augustus on the condition that he, in turn, adopt his nephew Germanicus. Germanicus Julius Caesar ( 24 May 16 BC or 15 BC&ndash October 10, 19) [167] This continued the tradition of presenting at least two generations of heirs. [163] In that year, Tiberius was also granted the powers of a tribune and proconsul, emissaries from foreign kings had to pay their respects to him, and by 13 was awarded with his second triumph and equal level of imperium with that of Augustus. [168] The only other possible claimant as heir was Postumus Agrippa, who had been exiled by Augustus in AD 7, his banishment made permanent by senatorial decree, and Augustus officially disowned him. Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa Postumus (12 BC-14 also known as Agrippa Postumus or Postumus Agrippa, was a son of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa and Julia the [169] He certainly fell out of Augustus' favor as an heir; historian Erich S. Gruen notes various contemporary sources that state Postumus Agrippa was a "vulgar young man, brutal and brutish, and of depraved character. "[169]
On August 19 AD 14, Augustus died while visiting the place of his father's death at Nola, and Tiberius—who was present alongside Livia at Augustus' deathbed—was named his heir. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Nola is a city of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines. [170] Augustus' famous last words were, "Did you like the performance?"—referring to the play-acting and regal authority that he had put on as emperor. An enormous funerary procession of mourners traveled with Augustus' body from Nola to Rome, and on the day of his burial all public and private businesses closed for the day. [170] Tiberius and his son Drusus delivered the eulogy while standing atop two rostra. The Rostra or Rostra Vetera was the platform located within the Comitium of the Roman Forum beside the Curia from which Orators [5] Augustus' body inside a coffin was cremated on a pyre close to his mausoleum, and it was proclaimed that Augustus joined the company of the gods as a member of the Roman pantheon. The Mausoleum of Augustus was a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome. A pantheon (from Greek Πάνθειον - pantheion, literally "a temple of all gods " neut [5] In 410 during the Sack of Rome the mausolem was despoiled by the Goths and his ashes scattered.
Historian D. C. A. Shotter states that Augustus' policies of favoring the Julian family line over the Claudian should have been sufficient cause for Tiberius to show open disdain for Augustus after the latter's death; instead, Tiberius was always quick to rebuke those who criticized Augustus. [171] Shotter suggests that Augustus' deification, coupled with Tiberius' "extremely conservative" attitude towards religion forced Tiberius to hold back any open resentment he might have harbored. [172] Also, historian R. Shaw-Smith points to letters of Augustus to Tiberius which display affection towards Tiberius and high regard for his military merits. [173] Shotter states that Tiberius focused his anger and criticism on Gaius Asinius Gallus (for marrying Vipsania after Augustus forced Tiberius to divorce her) as well as the two young Caesars Gaius and Lucius, instead of Augustus, the real architect of his divorce and imperial demotion. Gaius Asinius Gallus Saloninus was an ambitious Roman Senator with family connections to the Julio-Claudian house [172]
Augustus' legacy
- Further information: Augustus in popular culture
Augustus' reign laid the foundations of a regime that lasted hundreds of years until the ultimate decline of the Roman Empire. Augustus of Prima Porta is a 204m high marble statue of Augustus Caesar which was discovered on April 20, 1863 in the Villa of Livia at Augustus ( 63 BC – AD 14) also known as Octavian, was the first and among the most important of the Roman Emperors Michael The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. Both his borrowed surname, Caesar, and his title Augustus became the permanent titles of the rulers of Roman Empire for fourteen centuries after his death, in use both at Old Rome and New Rome. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS In many languages, caesar became the word for emperor, as in the German Kaiser and in the Bulgarian and subsequently Russian Tsar. Kaiser is the German title meaning " Emperor " with Kaiserin being the female equivalent " Empress " Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. The cult of Divus Augustus continued until the state religion of the Empire was changed to Christianity in 391 by Theodosius I. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Events By Place Roman Empire All non- Christian temples in the Empire are closed as Theodosius establishes Christianity Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ Consequently, there are many excellent statues and busts of the first emperor. He had composed an account of his achievements, the Res Gestae Divi Augusti, to be inscribed in bronze in front of his mausoleum. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus The Mausoleum of Augustus was a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome. [174] Copies of the text were inscribed throughout the Empire upon his death. [175] The inscriptions in Latin featured translations in Greek beside it, and were inscribed on many public edifices, such as the temple in Ankara dubbed the Monumentum Ancyranum, called the "queen of inscriptions" by historian Theodor Mommsen. Ankara is the capital of Turkey and the country's second largest city after İstanbul. Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen ( 30 November 1817 &ndash 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, [176] There are a few known written works by Augustus that have not survived. This includes his poems Sicily, Epiphanus, and Ajax, an autobiography of 13 books, a philosophical treatise, and his written rebuttal to Brutus' Eulogy of Cato. [177] However, historians are able to analyze existing letters penned by Augustus to others for additional facts or clues about his personal life. [173][178]
Many consider Augustus to be Rome's greatest emperor; his policies certainly extended the Empire's life span and initiated the celebrated Pax Romana or Pax Augusta. He was intelligent, decisive, and a shrewd politician, but he was not perhaps as charismatic as Julius Caesar, and was influenced on occasion by his third wife, Livia (sometimes for the worse). Nevertheless, his legacy proved more enduring. The city of Rome was utterly transformed under Augustus, with Rome's first institutionalized police force, fire fighting force, and the establishment of the municipal prefect as a permanent office. Throughout the history of Criminal justice, evolving forms of Punishment, added Rights for Offenders and victims and Policing reforms Distinguish from a Firefight, which means a battle with firearms Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: "make in front" i [179] The police force was divided into cohorts of 500 men each, while the units of firemen ranged from 500 to 1,000 men each, with 7 units assigned to 14 divided city sectors. [179] A praefectus vigilum, or "Prefect of the Watch" was put in charge of the vigiles, Rome's fire brigade and police. The Vigiles or more properly the Vigiles Urbani ("watchmen of the City " or Cohortes Vigilum [180] With Rome's civil wars at an end, Augustus was also able to create a standing army for the Roman Empire, fixed at a size of 28 legions of about 170,000 soldiers. A standing army is an Army composed of full time career Soldiers who 'stand over' in other words who do not disband during times of peace [181] This was supported by numerous auxiliary units of 500 soldiers each, often recruited from recently conquered areas. [182] With his finances securing the maintenance of roads throughout Italy, Augustus also installed an official courier system of relay stations overseen by a military officer known as the praefectus vehiculorum. A courier is a Person or company employed to deliver Messages packages and Mail. [183] Besides the advent of swifter communication amongst Italian polities, his extensive building of roads throughout Italy also allowed Rome's armies to march swiftly and at an unprecedented pace across the country. [184] In the year 6 Augustus established the aerarium militare, donating 170 million sesterces to the new military treasury that provided for both active and retired soldiers. [185] One of the most lasting institutions of Augustus was the establishment of the Praetorian Guard in 27 BC, originally a personal bodyguard unit on the battlefield that evolved into an imperial guard as well as an important political force in Rome. The Praetorian Guard ( Latin: PRÆTORIANI was a special force of Guards used by Roman Emperors Before being appropriated [186] They had the power to intimidate the Senate, install new emperors, and depose ones they disliked; the last emperor they served was Maxentius, as it was Constantine I who disbanded them in the early 4th century and destroyed their barracks, the Castra Praetoria. Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c 278 - 28 October 312) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312 Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine Castra Praetoria are the ancient barracks ( Castra) of the Praetorian Guard of Imperial Rome. [187]
Although the most powerful individual in the Roman Empire, Augustus wished to embody the spirit of Republican virtue and norms. He also wanted to relate to and connect with the concerns of the plebs and lay people. He achieved this through various means of generosity and a cutting back of lavish excess. In the year 29 BC, Augustus paid 400 sesterces each to 250,000 citizens, 1,000 sesterces each to 120,000 veterans in the colonies, and spent 700 million sesterces in purchasing land for his soldiers to settle upon. The sestertius, or sesterce, was an ancient Roman Coin. During the Roman Republic it was a small Silver, and rare coin issued [188] He also restored 82 different temples to display his care for the Roman pantheon of deities. Roman mythology, or more appropriately Latin mythology, refers to the mythological beliefs of the Italic people inhabiting the region of Latium and its [188] In 28 BC, he melted down 80 silver statues erected in his likeness and in honor of him, an attempt of his to appear frugal and modest. [188]
The longevity of Augustus' reign and its legacy to the Roman world should not be overlooked as a key factor in its success. As Tacitus wrote, the younger generations alive in AD 14 had never known any form of government other than the Principate. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. [189] Had Augustus died earlier (in 23 BC, for instance), matters might have turned out differently. The attrition of the civil wars on the old Republican oligarchy and the longevity of Augustus, therefore, must be seen as major contributing factors in the transformation of the Roman state into a de facto monarchy in these years. Augustus' own experience, his patience, his tact, and his political acumen also played their parts. He directed the future of the Empire down many lasting paths, from the existence of a standing professional army stationed at or near the frontiers, to the dynastic principle so often employed in the imperial succession, to the embellishment of the capital at the emperor's expense. Augustus' ultimate legacy was the peace and prosperity the Empire enjoyed for the next two centuries under the system he initiated. His memory was enshrined in the political ethos of the Imperial age as a paradigm of the good emperor. Every emperor of Rome adopted his name, Caesar Augustus, which gradually lost its character as a name and eventually became a title. [5]
The Augustan era poets Virgil and Horace praised Augustus as a defender of Rome, an upholder of moral justice, and an individual who bore the brunt of responsibility in maintaining the empire. [190] However, for his rule of Rome and establishing the principate, Augustus has also been subjected to criticism throughout the ages. The contemporary Roman jurist Marcus Antistius Labeo (d. Marcus Antistius Labeo (d 10 or 11 AD was a prominent Jurist of Ancient Rome. 10 or 11 AD), fond of the days of pre-Augustan republican liberty in which he had been born into, openly criticized the Augustan regime. Liberty, the freedom to act or believe without being stopped by unnecessary force [191] In the beginning of his Annals, the Roman historian Tacitus (c. The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. 56–c. 117) wrote that Augustus had cunningly subverted Republican Rome into a position of slavery. [191] He continued to say that, with Augustus' death and swearing of loyalty to Tiberius, the people of Rome simply traded one slaveholder for another. [191] However, Tacitus was of the belief that Nerva (r. Marcus Cocceius Nerva was also the name of a Roman emperor NERVA is an acronym for Nuclear Engine for Rocket 96–98) successfully "mingled two formerly alien ideas, principate and liberty. "[192] The 3rd century historian Cassius Dio acknowledged Augustus as a benign, moderate ruler, yet like most other historians after the death of Augustus, Dio viewed Augustus as an autocrat. An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler [191] The poet Marcus Annaeus Lucanus (39–65 AD) was of the opinion that Caesar's victory over Pompey and the fall of Cato the Younger (95 BC–46 BC) marked the end of traditional liberty in Rome; historian Chester G. Marcus Annaeus Lucanus ( November 3, 39 AD – April 30, 65 AD better known in English as Lucan, was a Roman Marcus Porcius Catō Uticensis (95 BC&ndash46 BC known as Cato the Younger ( Cato Minor) to distinguish him from his great-grandfather ( Cato the Elder Starr, Jr. writes of his avoidance of criticizing Augustus, "perhaps Augustus was too sacred a figure to accuse directly. "[192]
The Anglo-Irish writer Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), in his Discourse on the Contests and Dissentions in Athens and Rome, criticized Augustus for installing tyranny over Rome, and likened what he believed Great Britain's virtuous constitutional monarchy to Rome's moral Republic of the 2nd century BC. " Anglo-Irish " was a term used historically to describe a privileged Social class in Ireland, whose members were the descendants and successors of the Jonathan Swift (30 November 1667 See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is [193] In his criticism of Augustus, the admiral and historian Thomas Gordon (1658–1741) compared Augustus to the puritanical tyrant Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658). Admiral Thomas Gordon (c 1658–1741 was a commodore of the Royal Scots Navy and Admiral of the Imperial Russian Navy. Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 Old Style &ndash 3 September 1658 Old Style) was an English military and political leader best known [193] Thomas Gordon and the French political philosopher Montesquieu (1689–1755) both remarked that Augustus was a coward in battle. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Charles-Louis de Secondat baron de La Brède et de Montesquieu (Eng [194] In his Memoirs of the Court of Augustus, the Scottish scholar Thomas Blackwell (1701–1757) deemed Augustus a Machiavellian ruler, "a bloodthirsty vindicative usurper", "wicked and worthless", "a mean spirit", and a "tyrant". Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. Thomas Blackwell ( 4 August 1701 &ndash 8 March 1757) was a Scottish classical scholar Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain [194]
Revenue reforms
Augustus' public revenue reforms had a great impact on the subsequent success of the Empire. In business revenue or revenues is Income that a company receives from its normal business activities usually from the sale of goods and services Augustus brought a far greater portion of the Empire's expanded land base under consistent, direct taxation from Rome, instead of exacting varying, intermittent, and somewhat arbitrary tributes from each local province as Augustus' predecessors had done. [195] This reform greatly increased Rome's net revenue from its territorial acquisitions, stabilized its flow, and regularized the financial relationship between Rome and the provinces, rather than provoking fresh resentments with each new arbitrary exaction of tribute. [195] The measures of taxation in the reign of Augustus were determined by population census, with fixed quotas for each province. A census is the procedure of acquiring information about every member of a given population [196] Citizens of Rome and Italy paid indirect taxes, while direct taxes were exacted from the provinces. [196] Indirect taxes included a 4% tax on the price of slaves, a 1% tax on goods sold at auction, and a 5% tax on the inheritance of estates valued at over 100,000 sesterces by persons other than the next of kin. [196]
An equally important reform was the abolition of private tax farming, which was replaced by salaried civil service tax collectors. Private contractors that raised taxes had been the norm in the Republican era, and some had grown powerful enough to influence the amount of votes for politicians in Rome. [195] The tax farmers had gained great infamy for their depredations, as well as great private wealth, by winning the right to tax local areas. [195] Rome's revenue was the amount of the successful bids, and the tax farmers' profits consisted of any additional amounts they could forcibly wring from the populace with Rome's blessing. Lack of effective supervision, combined with tax farmers' desire to maximize their profits, had produced a system of arbitrary exactions that was often barbarously cruel to taxpayers, widely (and accurately) perceived as unfair, and very harmful to investment and the economy.
The use of Egypt's immense land rents to finance the Empire's operations resulted from Augustus' conquest of Egypt and the shift to a Roman form of government. Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire [197] As it was effectively considered Augustus' private property rather than a province of the Empire, it became part of each succeeding emperor's patrimonium. [198] Instead of a legate or proconsul, Augustus installed a prefect from the equestrian class to administer Egypt and maintain its lucrative seaports; this position became the highest political achievement for any equestrian besides becoming Prefect of the Praetorian Guard. Praetorian prefect (Latin Praefectus praetorio) was the constant title of a high office in the Roman state that changed fundamentally in nature [199] The highly productive agricultural land of Egypt yielded enormous revenues that were available to Augustus and his successors to pay for public works and military expeditions,[197] as well as bread and circuses for the population of Rome.
Month of August
The month of August (Latin: Augustus) is named after Augustus; until his time it was called Sextilis (named so because it had been the sixth month of the original Roman calendar and the Latin word for six was sex). Other names In Arabic, the month is called أغسطسص ʾUġusṭuṣ or آب ʾĀb; usage varies from place to place and Sextilis was the original Latin name for the sixth month in the Roman calendar. The Roman calendar changed its form several times in the time between the foundation of Rome and the fall of the Roman Empire. Commonly-repeated lore has it that August has 31 days because Augustus wanted his month to match the length of Julius Caesar's July, but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar Johannes de Sacrobosco. Johannes de Sacrobosco or Sacro Bosco ( John of Holywood, c 1195 &ndash c Sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed, and it was not chosen for its length (see Julian calendar). The Julian calendar, a reform of the Roman calendar, was introduced by Julius Caesar in 46 BC and came into force in 45 BC (709 Ab urbe condita According to a senatus consultum quoted by Macrobius, Sextilis was renamed to honour Augustus because several of the most significant events in his rise to power, culminating in the fall of Alexandria, fell in that month. This article is about Macrobius the author for Macrobius the bishop of Seleucia and Calycadnum see Macrobius of Seleucia Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια [200]
Building projects
- Further information: Category:Augustan building projects
On his deathbed, Augustus boasted "I found Rome of clay; I leave it to you of marble;" although there is some truth in the literal meaning of this, Cassius Dio asserts that it was a metaphor for the Empire's strength. Lucius Cassius Dio Cocceianus ( Greek:) (c 155 or 163/164 to after 229 known in English as Cassius Dio, Dio Cassius, or Dio was [201] Marble could be found in buildings of Rome before Augustus, but it was not extensively used as a building material until the reign of Augustus. Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of [202] Although this did not apply to the Subura slums, which were still as rickety and fire-prone as ever, he did leave a mark on the monumental topography of the centre and of the Campus Martius, with the Ara Pacis (Altar of Peace) and monumental sundial, whose central gnomon was an obelisk taken from Egypt. The Suburra is the modern Italian name for a neighborhood of Rome; in Antiquity the word was usually spelled Subura, and was a Red-light district. For the pioneer fortification at Marietta Ohio see Campus Martius Marietta For the park in Detroit Michigan, see Campus Martius Park The Ara Pacis Augustae ( Latin, "Altar of Augustan Peace" commonly shortened to Ara Pacis) is an Altar to Peace The gnomon is the part of a Sundial that casts the Shadow. Gnomon (γνώμων is an Ancient Greek word meaning "indicator" "one who There are eight Ancient Egyptian and five ancient Roman obelisks in Rome, together with a number of more modern Obelisks there was also formerly (until 2005 [203] The relief sculptures decorating the Ara Pacis visually augmented the written record of Augustus' triumphs in the Res Gestae. A relief is a Sculptured Artwork where a modeled form is raised (or alternatively lowered from a flattened background without being disconnected from it Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus [204] Its reliefs depicted the imperial pageants of the praetorians, the Vestals, and the citizenry of Rome. Praetor was a title granted by the government of Ancient Rome to men acting in one of two official capacities the commander of an Army, either before [204] He also built the Temple of Caesar, the Baths of Agrippa, and the Forum of Augustus with its Temple of Mars Ultor. The Temple of Caesar ( Aedes Divi Iulii or Templum Divi Iulii) was begun by Augustus in 42 BC after the senate deified The Baths of Agrippa ( Thermae Agrippae) in Ancient Rome, built by Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa, were the first of the great Thermae constructed The Forum of Augustus is one of the Imperial forums of Rome built by Augustus. The Forum of Augustus is one of the Imperial forums of Rome built by Augustus. Other projects were either encouraged by him, such as the Theatre of Balbus, and Agrippa's construction of the Pantheon, or funded by him in the name of others, often relations (eg Portico of Octavia, Theatre of Marcellus). Lucius Cornelius Balbus (called Minor to distinguish from his uncle) received the Roman citizenship at the same time as his uncle The Pantheon ( Latin Pantheon, from Greek Πάνθειον Pantheon, meaning "Temple of all the gods" is a building in Rome Not to be confused with the Porticus Octavia. The Porticus Octaviae ( Portico of Octavia Italian: Portico di Ottavia The Theatre of Marcellus (Latin Theatrum Marcelli; Italian Teatro di Marcello) is an ancient theatre built at the beginning of the Roman Empire. Even his Mausoleum of Augustus was built before his death to house members of his family. The Mausoleum of Augustus was a large tomb built by the Roman Emperor Augustus in 28 BC on the Campus Martius in Rome. [205] To celebrate his victory at the Battle of Actium, the Arch of Augustus was built in 29 BC near the entrance of the Temple of Castor and Pollux, and widened in 19 BC to include a triple-arch design. The temple of Castor and Pollux is an ancient edifice in the Roman Forum, originally built in gratitude for victory at the Battle [202] There are also many buildings outside of the city of Rome that bear Augustus' name and legacy, such as the Theatre of Merida in modern Spain, the Maison Carrée built at Nîmes in today's southern France, as well as the Trophy of Augustus at La Turbie, located near Monaco. Mérida is the capital of the autonomous community of Extremadura, Spain. The Maison Carrée at Nîmes in southern France is one of the best preserved temples to be found anywhere in the territory of the former Roman Empire. Nîmes ( Provençal Occitan: Nimes in both classical and Mistralian norms is a city in southern France. The Trophy of the Alps or Trophy of Augustus was built by the Roman emperor Augustus to celebrate his definitive victory over the ancient La Turbie (in Italian "Turbia" from tropea Latin for trophy is a commune in the Alpes-Maritimes department in southeastern France For other uses see Monaco (disambiguation Monaco, officially the Principality of Monaco ( French: Principauté de Monaco; Monégasque
After the death of Agrippa in 12 BC, a solution had to be found in maintaining Rome's water supply system. This came about because it was overseen by Agrippa when he served as aedile, and was even funded by him afterwards when he was a private citizen paying at his own expense. [179] In that year, Augustus arranged a system where the Senate designated three of its members as prime commissioners in charge of the water supply and to ensure that Rome's aqueducts did not fall into disrepair. [179] In the late Augustan era, the commission of five senators called the curatores locorum publicorum iudicandorum was put in charge of maintaining public buildings and temples of the state cult. [179] Augustus created the senatorial group of the curatores viarum for the upkeep of roads; this senatorial commission worked with local officials and contractors to organize regular repairs. [183]
The Corinthian order of architectural style originating from ancient Greece was the dominant architectural style in the age of Augustus and the imperial phase of Rome. The Corinthian order is one of the Classical orders of Greek and Roman Architecture, characterized [202] Suetonius once commented that Rome was unworthy of its status as an imperial capital, yet Augustus and Agrippa set out to dismantle this sentiment by transforming the appearance of Rome upon the classical Greek model. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. [202]
Physical appearance
The biographer Suetonius describes Augustus' outward appearance as follows: "He was unusually handsome . Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. . . He had clear, bright eyes . . . His teeth were wide apart, small, and ill-kept; his hair was slightly curly and inclining to golden; his eyebrows met. His ears were of moderate size, and his nose projected a little at the top and then bent slightly inward. His complexion was between dark and fair. He was short of stature . . . "[206]
See also
- Augustus (honorific)
- Julio-Claudian family tree
- Gaius Maecenas
- Augustan literature
- Augustan poetry
- Roman trade with India
Notes
^ a: Fully Imperator Caesar, Divi Filius, Augustus which means Imperator Caesar, Son of the Divus (Divus Julius), Augustus. Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman The Julio-Claudian dynasty of the early Roman Empire has a Family tree complicated by multiple marriages between the members of the Gens Julia Caius Cilnius Maecenas (70 &ndash 8 BC was a confidant and political advisor to Octavian (who was to become the first Emperor of Rome as Caesar Augustus) as well Augustan literature is a style of English literature produced during the reigns of Queen Anne, King George I, and George II in the Augustan poetry is the poetry that flourished during the reign of Caesar Augustus as Emperor of Rome, most notably including the works of Virgil, Horace Roman trade with India through the overland caravan routes via Anatolia and Persia though at a relative trickle comparative to later times antedated the southern trade route via the Red The Latin word Imperator was a title originally roughly equivalent to commander during the period of the Roman Republic. Caesar (plural Caesars Latin: Caesar (plural Caesares is a Title of imperial character Augustus (plural augusti) Latin for "majestic" "the increaser" or "venerable" was an Ancient Roman The Imperial cult in Ancient Rome was the worship of a few select emperors as gods once they were deceased the only emperor to
- ^ Some provinces were governed by the Senate. The Roman Senate was a political institution in Ancient Rome.
- ^ CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 35.
- ^ The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus, p. 153
- ^ a b c Eck, 3.
- ^ a b c d Eck, 124.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 5–6 on-line text. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 1–4.
- ^ Rowell, 14.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 7
- ^ By Roman custom, one's status passed through one's father, not one's mother.
- ^ Chisholm, 23.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 4–8; Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 3. Nicolaus of Damascus ( Greek, Nikolāos Damaskēnos) was a Syrian Historian and Philosopher who lived during the Augustan
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 8.1; Quintilian, 12.6.1. Marcus Fabius Quintilianus (ca 35 – ca 100 was a Roman Rhetorician from Hispania, widely referred to in medieval schools of rhetoric and
- ^ a b Suetonius, Augustus 8.1
- ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 4.
- ^ a b c Rowell, 16.
- ^ Nicolaus of Damascus, Augustus 6.
- ^ Velleius Paterculus 2.59.3.
- ^ Suetonius, Julius 83.
- ^ a b c Eck, 9.
- ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.9–11.
- ^ His daughter Julia had died in 54 BC. Julia Caesaris ( Classical Latin: IVLIA•CAESARIS 83 or 82 BC-54 BC was the daughter of Gaius '''Julius Caesar''' the dictator, by his
- ^ Rowell, 15.
- ^ Mackay, 160.
- ^ a b c d e f Eck, 10.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 68, 71.
- ^ a b Eck, 9–10.
- ^ a b Rowell, 19.
- ^ Rowell, 18.
- ^ CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 18.
- ^ Appian, Civil Wars 3.11–12.
- ^ Chisholm, 24.
- ^ Chisholm, 27.
- ^ Rowell, 20.
- ^ Eck, 11.
- ^ Syme, 114–120.
- ^ Chisholm, 26.
- ^ Rowell, 30.
- ^ Eck, 11–12.
- ^ Rowell, 21.
- ^ Syme, 123–126.
- ^ a b c d Eck, 12.
- ^ a b c Rowell, 23.
- ^ Rowell, 24.
- ^ Chisholm, 29.
- ^ Chisholm, 30.
- ^ Rowell, 19–20.
- ^ Syme, 167.
- ^ Syme, 173–174
- ^ Scullard, 157.
- ^ Rowell, 26–27.
- ^ a b c Rowell, 27.
- ^ Chisholm, 32–33.
- ^ Eck, 14.
- ^ Rowell, 28.
- ^ Syme, 176–186.
- ^ Sear, David R. Common Legend Abbreviations On Roman Coins. Retrieved on 2007-08-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar 's General Gaius Scribonius Curio is defeated in the Second Battle of the Bagradas River
- ^ a b Eck, 15.
- ^ Scullard, 163.
- ^ a b c d Eck, 16.
- ^ Scullard, 164.
- ^ a b Eck, 17.
- ^ Syme, 202.
- ^ a b Eck, 17–18.
- ^ a b Eck, 18.
- ^ Eck, 18–19.
- ^ a b c d Eck, 19.
- ^ a b Rowell, 32.
- ^ a b c d e Eck, 20.
- ^ Scullard, 162
- ^ a b c d Eck 21.
- ^ a b c d CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 19.
- ^ a b Eck, 22.
- ^ Eck, 23.
- ^ Scullard, 163
- ^ a b Eck, 24.
- ^ a b Eck, 25.
- ^ Eck, 25–26.
- ^ a b c d e Eck, 26.
- ^ Scullard, 164
- ^ Eck, 26–27.
- ^ Eck, 27–28.
- ^ Eck, 29.
- ^ Eck, 29–30.
- ^ a b Eck, 30.
- ^ CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 20.
- ^ Eck, 31.
- ^ Eck, 32–34.
- ^ Eck, 34.
- ^ Eck, 34–35
- ^ CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 21–22.
- ^ Eck, 35.
- ^ CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 22.
- ^ a b c Eck, 37.
- ^ Eck, 38.
- ^ Eck, 38–39.
- ^ Eck, 39.
- ^ Green, 697.
- ^ Scullard, 171.
- ^ CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 21.
- ^ a b c d e Eck, 49.
- ^ CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 34–35.
- ^ a b c d CCAA, 24–25.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 38–39.
- ^ a b c d e Eck, 45.
- ^ Eck, 44–45.
- ^ Eck, 113.
- ^ a b Eck, 80.
- ^ a b Scullard, 211.
- ^ a b Eck, 46.
- ^ Scullard, 210.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 34.
- ^ a b c Eck, 47.
- ^ a b c d CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 24.
- ^ a b c d Eck, 50.
- ^ Eck, 149
- ^ CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 13.
- ^ a b c d CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 25.
- ^ Eck, 55.
- ^ Eck, 55–56.
- ^ a b c d e f g Eck, 56.
- ^ CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 38.
- ^ a b c d e CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 26.
- ^ a b c Eck, 57.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 36.
- ^ CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 37.
- ^ Eck, 56–57.
- ^ Eck, 57–58.
- ^ Eck, 59.
- ^ a b CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 30.
- ^ Bunson, 80.
- ^ Bunson, 427.
- ^ a b Eck, 60.
- ^ a b c Eck, 61.
- ^ a b c Eck, 117.
- ^ Dio 54.1, 6, 10.
- ^ Eck, 78.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 43.
- ^ Bowersock, p. 380. The date is provided by inscribed calendars; see also Augustus, Res Gestae 10.2. Res Gestae Divi Augusti, ( Latin: "The Deeds of the Divine Augustus" is the funerary inscription of the first Roman emperor, Augustus Dio 27.2 reports this under 13 BC, probably as the year in which Lepidus died (Bowersock, p. 383).
- ^ CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 28.
- ^ Mackay, 186.
- ^ Eck, 129.
- ^ a b c Eck, 93.
- ^ Eck, 95.
- ^ Eck, 95–96.
- ^ a b c d e f g Eck, 94.
- ^ a b Eck, 97.
- ^ Eck, 98.
- ^ Eck, 98–99.
- ^ a b Eck, 99.
- ^ a b c Bunson, 416.
- ^ a b c d e Eck, 96.
- ^ Rowell, 13.
- ^ Eck, 101–102.
- ^ Eck, 103.
- ^ Bunson, 417.
- ^ Bunson, 31.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 50.
- ^ Eck, 114–115.
- ^ Eck, 115.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 44.
- ^ a b Eck, 58.
- ^ a b c d Eck, 116.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 46.
- ^ Eck, 117–118.
- ^ CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 46–47.
- ^ Eck, 119.
- ^ Eck, 119–120.
- ^ a b CCAA, Erich S. Gruen, Augustus and the Making of the Principate, 49.
- ^ a b Eck, 123.
- ^ Shotter, 210–212.
- ^ a b Shotter, 211.
- ^ a b Shaw-Smith, 213.
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 101.4.
- ^ Eck, 1–2
- ^ Eck, 2.
- ^ Bunson, 47.
- ^ Bourne, 53–66.
- ^ a b c d e Eck, 79.
- ^ Bunson, 345.
- ^ Eck, 85–87.
- ^ Eck, 86.
- ^ a b Eck, 81.
- ^ Chisholm, 122.
- ^ Bunson, 6.
- ^ Bunson, 341.
- ^ Bunson, 341–342.
- ^ a b c CCAA, Walter Eder, Augustus and the Power of Tradition, 23.
- ^ Tacitus, Annals I.3
- ^ Kelsall, 120. The Annals, or in Latin, Annales, is a history book by Tacitus covering the reign of the four Roman Emperors succeeding
- ^ a b c d Starr, 5.
- ^ a b Starr, 6.
- ^ a b Kelsall, 118.
- ^ a b Kelsall, 119.
- ^ a b c d Eck, 83–84.
- ^ a b c Bunson, 404.
- ^ a b Bunson, 144.
- ^ Bunson, 144–145.
- ^ Bunson, 145.
- ^ Macrobius, Saturnalia 1.12.35. This article is about Macrobius the author for Macrobius the bishop of Seleucia and Calycadnum see Macrobius of Seleucia Ambrosius Theodosius Macrobius
- ^ Dio 56.30.3
- ^ a b c d Bunson, 34.
- ^ Eck, 122.
- ^ a b Bunson, 32.
- ^ Eck, 118–121
- ^ Suetonius, Augustus 79, translated by J. C. Rolfe. John Carew Rolfe PhD (b 1859 Newburyport Massachusetts - d 1943 was an American classical scholar the son of William J
References
- Bourne, Ella. "Augustus as a Letter-Writer," Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association (Volume 49, 1918): 53–66.
- Bowersock, G. W. (1990). "The Pontificate of Augustus", in Kurt A. Raaflaub and Mark Toher (eds. ): Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and his Principate. Berkeley: University of California Press, 380–394. ISBN 0-520-08447-0.
- Bunson, Matthew (1994). Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire. New York: Facts on File Inc. ISBN 0-8160-3182-7
- Chisholm, Kitty and John Ferguson. (1981). Rome: The Augustan Age; A Source Book. Oxford: Oxford University Press, in association with the Open University Press. ISBN 0-19-872108-0.
- Dio Cassius, The Roman History: The Reign of Augustus, London, Penguin Books, 1987, ISBN 0-14-044448-3.
- Eck, Werner; translated by Deborah Lucas Schneider; new material by Sarolta A. Takács. (2003) The Age of Augustus. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing (hardcover, ISBN 0-631-22957-4; paperback, ISBN 0-631-22958-2).
- Eder, Walter. (2005). "Augustus and the Power of Tradition," in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 13-32. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8).
- Everitt, Anthony (2006) Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. Random House Books. ISBN-10: 1400061288.
- Green, Peter (1990). Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age, Hellenistic Culture and Society. Berkeley, CA; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-05611-6 (hbk. ); ISBN 0-520-08349-0 (pbk. ).
- Gruen, Erich S. (2005). "Augustus and the Making of the Principate," in The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Augustus (Cambridge Companions to the Ancient World), ed. Karl Galinsky, 33-51. Cambridge, MA; New York: Cambridge University Press (hardcover, ISBN 0-521-80796-4; paperback, ISBN 0-521-00393-8).
- Kelsall, Malcolm. "Augustus and Pope," The Huntington Library Quarterly (Volume 39, Number 2, 1976): 117–131.
- Mackay, Christopher S. (2004). Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521809185.
- Scullard, H. H. [1959] (1982). From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome from 133 B. C. to A. D. 68, 5th edition, London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-02527-3 (pbk. ).
- Shaw-Smith, R. "A Letter from Augustus to Tiberius," Greece & Rome (Volume 18, Number 2, 1971): 213–214.
- Shotter, D. C. A. "Tiberius and the Spirit of Augustus," Greece & Rome (Volume 13, Number 2, 1966): 207–212.
- Starr, Chester G. , Jr. "The Perfect Democracy of the Roman Empire," The American Historical Review (Volume 58, Number 1, 1952): 1–16.
- Syme, Ronald (1939). Sir Ronald Syme OM ( 11 March, 1903 &ndash 4 September, 1989) New Zealand -born Historian, was an eminent The Roman Revolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280320-4 (pbk. ). The classic revisionist study of Augustus
- Roebuck, C, The World of Ancient Times, New York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1966
- Rowell, Henry Thompson. (1962). The Centers of Civilization Series: Volume 5; Rome in the Augustan Age. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-0956-4
Further reading
- Everitt, Anthony. Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor. New York: Random House, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 1-4000-6128-8). As The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome. London: John Murray, 2006 (hardcover, ISBN 0719554942).
- Reviewed by Alex Butterworth in The Guardian, December 23, 2006.
- Galinsky, Karl. Augustan Culture. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998 (paperback, ISBN 0-691-05890-3).
- Lewis, P. R. and G. D. B. Jones, Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, Journal of Roman Studies 60 (1970): 169-85
- Jones, R. F. J. and Bird, D. G. , Roman gold-mining in north-west Spain, II: Workings on the Rio Duerna, Journal of Roman Studies 62 (1972): 59-74.
- Jones, A. H. M. "The Imperium of Augustus", The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 41, Parts 1 and 2. (1951), pp. 112–119.
- Jones, A. H. M. Augustus. London: Chatto & Windus, 1970 (paperback, ISBN 0-7011-1626-9).
- Osgood, Josiah. Caesar's Legacy: Civil War and the Emergence of the Roman Empire. New York: Cambridge University Press (USA), 2006 (hardback, ISBN 0-521-85582-9; paperback, ISBN 0-521-67177-9).
- Raaflaub, Kurt A. & Toher, Mark (eds. ). Between Republic and Empire: Interpretations of Augustus and His Principate. Berkeley; Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993 (paperback, ISBN 0-520-08447-0).
- Reinhold, Meyer. The Golden Age of Augustus (Aspects of Antiquity). Toronto, ON: Univ of Toronto Press, 1978 (hardcover, ISBN 0-89522-007-5; paperback, ISBN 0-89522-008-3).
- Southern, Pat. Augustus (Roman Imperial Biographies). New York: Routledge, 1998 (hardcover, ISBN 0-415-16631-4); 2001 (paperback, ISBN 0-415-25855-3).
- Zanker, Paul. The Power of Images in the Age of Augustus (Thomas Spencer Jerome Lectures). Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, 1989 (hardcover, ISBN 0-472-10101-3); 1990 (paperback, ISBN 0-472-08124-1).
External links
Primary sources
- The Res Gestae Divi Augusti (The Deeds of Augustus, his own account: complete Latin and Greek texts with facing English translation)
- Suetonius' biography of Augustus, Latin text with English translation
- Cassius Dio's Roman History: Books 45–56, English translation
- Life of Augustus by Nicolaus of Damascus, English translation
- The Via Iulia Augusta: road built by the Romans; constructed on the orders of Augustus between the 13–12 B.C.
- Gallery of the Ancient Art: August
- Humor of Augustus
Secondary source material
- De Imperatoribus Romanis
- Augustus Caesar and the Pax Romana
- Octavian / Augustus
- Augustus and the Roman army—Mutual Loyalty and Rewards
- Augustus at BBC History
- Anthony Everitt, The First Emperor: Caesar Augustus and the Triumph of Rome (review)
Augustus Born: 23 September 63 BC Died: 19 August AD 14 | ||
| Political offices | ||
|---|---|---|
| Preceded by Aulus Hirtius and Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus | Consul (Suffect. Nicolaus of Damascus ( Greek, Nikolāos Damaskēnos) was a Syrian Historian and Philosopher who lived during the Augustan The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Aulus Hirtius (ca 90-43 BC was one of the Consuls of Ancient Rome immediately after the Assassination of Julius Caesar, and a Writer Gaius Vibius Pansa Caetronianus (d 43 BC Consul of the Roman Republic in 43 BC This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff ) of the Roman Republic Quintus Pedius 43 BC | Succeeded by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and Lucius Munatius Plancus |
| Preceded by Marcus Antonius and Lucius Scribonius Libo and Aemilius Lepidus Paullus (Suffect. The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Quintus Pedius (? - late 43 BC was a Roman that lived during the late Roman Republic. Marcus Aemilius Lepidus ( Latin: M·AEMILIVS·M·F·Q·N·LEPIDVSborn ca 90 BC died 13 BC, was a Patrician Roman politician Lucius Munatius Plancus (ca 87 BC-ca 15 BC was a Roman senator, Consul in 42 BC and censor in 22 BC with Aemilius Lepidus Paullus. Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark There were three men of Plebs status called Lucius Scribonius Libo who lived in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire who were members of the Gens Lucius Aemilius Lepidus Paullus (d 13 BC was a member of the Roman Senate. ) | Consul of the Roman Republic with Lucius Volcatius Tullus 33 BC | Succeeded by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius |
| Preceded by Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Gaius Sosius | Consul of the Roman Empire 31 BC – 23 BC | Succeeded by Marcus Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus and Lucius Arruntius |
| Preceded by Decius Laelius Balbus and Gnaeus Antistius Vetus | Consul of the Roman Empire 5 BC | Succeeded by Gaius Calvisius Sabinus and Lucius Passienus Rufus |
| Preceded by Lucius Cornelius Lentulus and Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus | Consul of the Roman Empire 2 BC | Succeeded by Cossus Cornelius Lentulus and Lucius Calpurnius Piso |
| Preceded by Julius Caesar | Julio-Claudian dynast 44 BC – AD 14 | Succeeded by Tiberius |
| Preceded by Julius Caesar as Imperator of Roman Republic (45 BC) | Roman Emperor 27 BC – AD 14 | |
| Preceded by Marcus Aemilius Lepidus | Pontifex Maximus 12 BC – AD 14 | |
| Persondata | |
|---|---|
| NAME | Augustus |
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES | Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus; Octavian; Gaius Octavius Thurinus |
| SHORT DESCRIPTION | first Roman Emperor |
| DATE OF BIRTH | September 23, 63 BC |
| PLACE OF BIRTH | Rome |
| DATE OF DEATH | August 19, 14 |
| PLACE OF DEATH | Nola |
This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff The Roman Republic was the phase of the ancient Roman civilization characterized by a Republican form of government a period which began with the overthrow of the Lucius Volcatius Tullus, was a Roman politician and Consul. He was the son of Lucius Volcatius Tullus; the consul of 66 BC. For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died 31 BC) was a general and politician of Ancient Rome Gaius Sosius, was a Roman general and politician Gaius Sosius was elected Quaestor in 66 BC and Praetor in 49 BC. For others of this family see Ahenobarbus. Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (died 31 BC) was a general and politician of Ancient Rome Gaius Sosius, was a Roman general and politician Gaius Sosius was elected Quaestor in 66 BC and Praetor in 49 BC. This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Year 31 BC was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Year 23 BC was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Julian calendar. Marcus Claudius Marcellus Aeserninus is the name of several people in ancient Roman history Marcus Claudius M Lucius Arruntius (ca 60 BC &ndash AD 10 was a Roman Admiral. He saw action during the War with Sextus Pompeius, and the war of Mark Antony Decimus Laelius Balbus, son of Decimus and grandson of Decimus a Roman politician during the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus. This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Marcus Valerius Messalla Messallinus was the son of the Roman famous orator Marcus Valerius Messalla Corvinus, whom he resembled in character This is a list of Roman consuls Key Abbreviations Imp = Imperator suff The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Julio-Claudian Dynasty refers to the first five Roman Emperors: Augustus (Octavian Tiberius, Caligula (Gaius Claudius, and Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus (or Tiberius I) born Tiberius Claudius Nero (November 16 42 BC – March 16 AD 37) was the second Roman The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Marcus Aemilius Lepidus was a common name for several successive generations of a family in Ancient Rome: Marcus Aemilius Lepidus (consul 187 BC, The Pontifex Maximus was the high priest of the Ancient Roman College of Pontiffs. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 63 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome Pompey conquers Phonecia, Coele-Syria Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Nola is a city of Campania, Italy, in the Province of Naples, situated in the plain between Mount Vesuvius and the Apennines.
Dictionary
Augustus
-proper noun
- The Roman emperor Augustus, also called Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus (63 BC - AD 14); heir to Julius Caesar
- A male given name taken to use in the 18th century.
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic