| جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان (Persian: Jamhūrī-ye Islāmī-ye Afġānistān ) د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت (Pashto: De Afġānistān Islāmī Jomhoriyat ) Islamic Republic of Afghanistan | ||||||
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| Anthem: Milli Tharana | ||||||
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| Capital (and largest city) | Kabul | |||||
| Official languages | Dari (Persian) and Pashto[1] | |||||
| Demonym | Afghan[2] | |||||
| Government | Islamic presidential republic | |||||
| - | President | Hamid Karzai | ||||
| - | Vice President | Ahmad Zia Massoud | ||||
| - | Vice President | Karim Khalili | ||||
| Establishment | ||||||
| - | First Afghan state[3] | October, 1747 | ||||
| - | Independence from the United Kingdom | August 19, 1919 | ||||
| Area | ||||||
| - | Total | 647,500 km² (41st) 251,772 sq mi | ||||
| - | Water (%) | 0 | ||||
| Population | ||||||
| - | 2007 estimate | 31,889,923 (37th) | ||||
| - | 1979 census | 13,051,358 | ||||
| - | Density | 46/km² (150th) 119/sq mi | ||||
| GDP (PPP) | 2006 estimate | |||||
| - | Total | $32. Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as The Flag of Afghanistan was adopted by the transitional government of Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan in 2002&ndash2004 The National Emblem of Afghanistan has appeared in some form on the Flag of Afghanistan since the inception of that nation A national anthem is a generally patriotic musical composition that evokes and eulogizes the history traditions and struggles of its people recognized either by a nation's Milli Tharana ( Persian for "National Anthem") is the National anthem of Afghanistan. The Demographics of Afghanistan are ethnically and linguistically mixed } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as A demonym or gentilic is a word that denotes the members of a People or the inhabitants of a place For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania A presidential system is a System of government where an executive branch exists and presides (hence the term separately from the Legislature Afghanistan has only intermittently been a Republic - between 1973-1992 and from 2001 onwards - at other times being governed by a variety of kings Emirs Hamid Karzai ( حامد کرزي, حامد کرزي) (born 24 December 1957) is the current President of Afghanistan, since December The Vice President of Afghanistan is the second highest Political position obtainable in Afghanistan. Ahmad Zia Massoud (Born May 1, 1956) is the current first Vice President of Afghanistan in the administration of President Hamid Karzai __FORCETOC__ For the Vice President of the United States, their roles and other information see Vice President of the United States. Abdul Karim Khalili is the current second Vice President of Afghanistan in the administration of President Hamid Karzai. This article is about the history of the area that has became known as Afghanistan, a territory whose current boundaries were mostly determined in the 19th Century The Durrani Empire (also referred to as the Afghan Empire) was a large state based in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and later included northeastern Year 1747 ( MDCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Treaty of Rawalpindi (signed on August 8, 1919 and amended November 22, 1921) was a treaty made between the United Kingdom The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Area is a Quantity expressing the two- Dimensional size of a defined part of a Surface, typically a region bounded by a closed Curve. To help compare Orders of magnitude of different geographical regions we list here Surface areas between 100000 km² and 1000000 km² This is a list of the countries of the world sorted by total area. The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Mathematics, a percentage is a way of expressing a number as a Fraction of 100 ( per cent meaning "per hundred" In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology List of countries by population in 2005|List of countries by population in 1907This is a list of countries ordered according to Population. Population density (in agriculture standing stock and Standing crop) is a measurement of Population per unit area or unit volume List of countries and dependencies by Population density in inhabitants/km² The purchasing power parity ( PPP) theory uses the long-term equilibrium Exchange rate of two currencies to equalize their Purchasing power. 4 billion (92nd) | ||||
| - | Per capita | $1,490 (158th) | ||||
| HDI (1993) | 0. There are three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP (the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation Per capita is a Latin phrase meaning for each head with Per meaning 'through' or 'by' This article includes three lists of Countries of the world sorted by their Gross domestic product (GDP at Purchasing power parity (PPP Per capita The Human Development Index ( HDI) is an index combining normalized measures of Life expectancy, Literacy, Educational attainment, and GDP 229 (n/a) (unranked) | |||||
| Currency | Afghani (AFN) | |||||
| Time zone | (UTC+4:30) | |||||
| - | Summer (DST) | (UTC+4:30) | ||||
| Internet TLD | .af | |||||
| Calling code | +93 | |||||
Afghanistan /æfˈgænɪstæn/[4], officially the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (Pashto: د افغانستان اسلامي جمهوریت, Persian: جمهوری اسلامی افغانستان), is a landlocked country that is located approximately in the center of Asia. This is a list of countries by Human Development Index as included in the United Nations Development Program 's Human Development Report 2007 A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is This article refers to the currency For other uses see Afghani. ISO 4217 is the International standard describing three-letter codes (also known as the currency code) to define the names of currencies established Daylight saving time ( DST A country This is a list of country calling codes defined by ITU-T recommendation E Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as A landlocked country is commonly defined as one enclosed or nearly enclosed by land It is variously designated as geographically located within Central Asia,[5][6] South Asia,[7][8] and the Middle East. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. [9][10][11] It has religious, ethno-linguistic, and geographic links with most of its neighboring states. It is bordered by Pakistan in the south and east Iran in the west, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan in the north, and China in the far northeast. Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia. Uzbekistan, officially the Republic of Uzbekistan ( Uzbek: O‘zbekiston Respublikasi or Ўзбекистон Республикаси is a doubly Tajikistan (təˈdʒɪkɨstæn or /təˈdʒiːkɨstæn/ Тоҷикистон tɔʤikɪsˈtɔn or, Persian تاجیکستان taajikestaan officially the Republic of Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The name Afghanistan means the "Land of Afghans. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called "
Afghanistan is a culturally mixed nation, a crossroads between the East and the West, and has been an ancient focal point of trade and migration. The term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various Cultures social structures and philosophical systems of " the East " The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Human migration denotes any movement by Humans from one locality to another sometimes over long distances or It has an important geostrategical location, connecting South, Central and Southwest Asia. Geostrategy, a subfield of Geopolitics, is a type of Foreign policy guided principally by geographical factors as they inform constrain or affect political During its long history, the land has seen various invaders and conquerors, while on the other hand, local entities invaded the surrounding vast regions to form their own empires. Ahmad Shah Durrani created the Durrani Empire in 1747, with its capital at Kandahar. Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (c1723-1773 ( also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī ( احمد شاه ابدالي) and born as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, The Durrani Empire (also referred to as the Afghan Empire) was a large state based in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and later included northeastern For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and [12] Subsequently, the capital was shifted to Kabul and most of its territories ceded to former neighboring countries. } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with In the late 19th century, Afghanistan became a buffer state in "The Great Game" played between the British Indian Empire and Russian Empire. A buffer state is a Country lying between two rival or potentially hostile greater powers, which by its sheer existence is thought to prevent conflict between them For the film see The Great Game (film The Great Game was a term used for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya [13] On August 19, 1919, following the third Anglo-Afghan war, the country regained full independence from the United Kingdom over its foreign affairs. Events 43 BC - Octavian, later known as Augustus compels the Roman Senate to elect him Consul. The European influence in Afghanistan refers to political social and sometimes Imperialistic influence various European nations have had on this historical development of the
Since the late 1970s Afghanistan has suffered continuous and brutal civil war, which included foreign interventions in the form of the 1979 Soviet invasion and the recent 2001 US-led invasion that toppled the Taliban government. The Civil war in Afghanistan, also known as Afghan Civil War, began in 1978 and has continued The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U The Taliban ( طالبان, also anglicised as Taleban; translation "students" is a Sunni Islamist, predominately In late 2001 the United Nations Security Council authorized the creation of an International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). International Security Assistance Force (10 ( ISAF) is a NATO -led security and development mission in Afghanistan established by the United Nations This force is composed of NATO troops that are involved in assisting the government of President Hamid Karzai in establishing the writ of law as well as rebuilding key infrastructures in the nation. The North Atlantic Treaty Hamid Karzai ( حامد کرزي, حامد کرزي) (born 24 December 1957) is the current President of Afghanistan, since December Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids In 2005, the United States and Afghanistan signed a strategic partnership agreement committing both nations to a long-term relationship. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In the meantime, multi-billion US dollars have also been provided by the international community for the reconstruction of the country. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been After more than two decades of conflict the Reconstruction of Afghanistan has begun though it continues to be hampered by continuing conflict
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Etymology
The name Afghānistān translates to the "Land of Afghans". Mainstream theories Ashvaka Etymological view supported by numerous noted scholars is that the name Afghan evidently derives from Sanskrit This list covers English language country names with their etymologies. Its modern usage derives from the word Afghan. Mainstream theories Ashvaka Etymological view supported by numerous noted scholars is that the name Afghan evidently derives from Sanskrit
Origin of the word "Afghan"
There are different theories about the origin of the word Afghan, its age, and its meaning. Some believe that "Afghan" is formed from "Apagân". [14] The Pashtuns began using the term Afghan as a name for themselves from at least the Islamic period and onwards. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called According to W. K. Frazier Tyler, M. C. Gillet and several other scholars, "The word Afghan first appears in history in the Hudud-al-Alam in 982 AD. Hudud ul-'alam min al-mashriq ila al-maghrib (حدود العالم من المشرق الی المغرب meaning "The Limits of The World from The East to The West" is an " Al-Biruni referred to Afghans as various tribes living on the western frontier mountains of the Indus River, which would be the Sulaiman Mountains. The Indus River { Sanskrit: सिन्धु Sindhu; Urdu: urd {{Nastaliq سندھ}} Sindh; Sindhi: snd The Sulaiman Mountains ( Persian, Urdu: سليمان are a major geological feature of Pakistan and one of the bordering ranges between the Iranian [15]
A Moroccan traveller, Ibn Battuta, visiting Kabul in 1333 writes:
"We travelled on to Kabul, formerly a vast town, the site of which is now occupied by a village inhabited by a tribe of Persians called Afghans. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February The Iranian people are a collection of Ethnic groups defined along linguistic lines as speaking Iranian languages. " [16]
In this regard the Encyclopædia Iranica states:[17]
From a more limited, ethnological point of view, "Afghān" is the term by which the Persian-speakers of Afghanistan (and the non-Paštō-speaking ethnic groups generally) designate the Paštūn. Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and The equation [of] Afghan [and] Paštūn has been propagated all the more, both in and beyond Afghanistan, because the Paštūn tribal confederation is by far the most important in the country, numerically and politically.
It further explains:
The term "Afghān" has probably designated the Paštūn since ancient times. Under the form Avagānā, this ethnic group is first mentioned by the Indian astronomer Varāha Mihira in the beginning of the 6th century CE in his Brihat-samhita. Daivajna Varāhamihira ( Devanagari: वराहमिहिर 505 &ndash 587 also called Varaha or Mihira was an Indian Astronomer, Mathematician Events By Place World The population of the Earth rises to about 208 million people
Meaning and origin of the name "Afghanistan"
The last part of the name, -stān, is an Iranian suffix for "place", prominent in many languages of the region. The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian.
The term "Afghanistan," meaning the "Land of Afghans," was mentioned by the sixteenth century Mughal Emperor Babur in his memoirs, referring to the territories south of Kabul that were inhabited by Pashtuns (called "Afghans" by Babur). The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most Bāburnāma ( Chagatai / literally "Book of Babur" or "Letters of Babur") are the memoirs of Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with [18]
Until the 19th century the name was only used for the traditional lands of the Pashtuns, while the kingdom as a whole was known as the Kingdom of Kabul, as mentioned by the British statesman and historian Mountstuart Elphinstone. Kabulistan ( is a historical term referring to the eastern territories of Khorasan that is centered around present-day Kabul, Afghanistan. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Mountstuart Elphinstone ( October 6, 1779 &ndash November 20, 1859) was a Scottish Statesman and Historian, [19] Other parts of the country were at certain periods recognized as independent kingdoms, such as the Kingdom of Balkh in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. [20]
With the expansion and centralization of the country, Afghan authorities adopted and extended the name "Afghanistan" to the entire kingdom, after its English translation, "Afghanland", had already appeared in various treaties between British Raj and Qajarid Persia, referring to the lands that were subject to the Pashtun Barakzai Dynasty of Kabul. For usage see British rule in India British Raj ( rāj, lit "reign" in Hindustani) primarily refers to the British The Qajar dynasty (also known as Ghajar or Kadjar ( ( - or دودمان قاجار) is a common term to describe Iran (then known as Persia) under Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called Bārakzai (singular Bārakzay) is a common ethnic name among the Pashtuns of Afghanistan and western Pakistan and among the Baloch [21] "Afghanistan" as the name for the entire kingdom was mentioned in 1857 by Frederick Engels. Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895 was a German social scientist and philosopher, who [22] It became the official name when the country was recognized by the world community in 1919, after regaining its full independence from the British,[23] and was confirmed as such in the nation's 1923 constitution. [24]
Geography
Afghanistan is a landlocked and mountainous country in South-Central Asia, with plains in the north and southwest. Borders Afghanistan has a total of 5529 km of borders including the land area borders with the longest being the 2430 km border known as the Durand Line to A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The highest point is Nowshak, at 7,485 m (24,557 ft) above sea level. Noshaq (or Nowshak) is the highest Mountain in Afghanistan and the second highest independent peak of the Hindu Kush after Tirich Mir Large parts of the country are dry, and fresh water supplies are limited. The endorheic Sistan Basin is one of the driest regions in the world. An endorheic basin (from Greek endo ‘inside’ + rhein ‘to flow’ also terminal or closed basin) is a closed Drainage basin The Sistan Basin is an inland Endorheic basin encompassing large parts of south-western Afghanistan and south-eastern Iran, one of the driest regions in [25] Afghanistan has a continental climate with hot summers and cold winters. The country is frequently subject to minor earthquakes, mainly in the northeast of Hindu Kush mountain areas. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer The Hindu Kush is a Mountain range located between Afghanistan and Pakistan. Some 125 villages were damaged and 4000 people killed by the May 30, 1998 earthquake.
At 249,984 sq mi (647,500 km²), Afghanistan is the world's 41st-largest country (after Myanmar). The square mile is an imperial and US unit of Area equal the area of a square of one statute mile. Burma, officially the Union of Myanmar ( pjìdàunzṵ mjàmmà nàinŋàndɔ̀ is the largest country by geographical area in mainland Southeast Asia.
The country's natural resources include gold, silver, copper, zinc and iron ore in southeastern areas; precious and semi-precious stones such as lapis, emerald and azure in the north-east; and potentially significant petroleum and natural gas reserves in the north. Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Copper (ˈkɒpɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol Cu (cuprum and Atomic number 29 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Iron ores are rocks and Minerals from which Metallic Iron can be economically extracted A gemstone or gem, also called a precious or semi-precious stone, is a piece of attractive Mineral, which &mdash when cut and polished &mdash Emeralds are a variety of the Mineral Beryl (Be3Al2(SiO36 colored Green by trace amounts This article is about the heraldic tincture. For other meanings see Azure (disambiguation. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, The country also has uranium, coal, chromite, talc, barites, sulfur, lead, and salt. Uranium (jʊˈreɪniəm is a silvery-gray Metallic Chemical element in the Chromite is iron magnesium chromium oxide (Fe MgCr2O4 It is an Oxide Mineral belonging to the Spinel group Talc (derived from the Persian via Arabic talq) is a Mineral composed of Hydrated Magnesium Silicate with Baryte ( Ba[[Sulfur S]] O 4 is a Mineral consisting of Barium sulfate. Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants [1][26][27][28] However, these significant mineral and energy resources remain largely untapped due to the effects of the Soviet invasion and the subsequent civil war. Plans are underway to begin extracting them in the near future. [29][30]
History
Though the modern state of Afghanistan was founded or created in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani,[12] the land has an ancient history and various timelines of different civilizations. This article is about the history of the area that has became known as Afghanistan, a territory whose current boundaries were mostly determined in the 19th Century Excavation of prehistoric sites by Louis Dupree, the University of Pennsylvania, the Smithsonian Institution and others suggests that humans were living in what is now Afghanistan at least 50,000 years ago, and that farming communities of the area were among the earliest in the world. The University of Pennsylvania (also known as Penn) is a private University located in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA. The Smithsonian Institution (smɪθsoʊnɪən is an educational and research institute and associated Museum complex administered and funded by the Government of [31][32]
Afghanistan is a country at a unique nexus point where numerous Indo-European civilizations have interacted and often fought, and was an important site of early historical activity. Through the ages, the region has been home to various people, among them the Aryan (Indo-Iranian) tribes, such as the Kambojas, Bactrians, Persians, Pashtuns, etc. Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" Indo-Iranian peoples consist of the Indo-Aryan, Iranian, Dardic and Nuristani peoples that is speakers of Indo-Iranian languages The Kambojas were a Kshatriya Tribe of Iron Age India, frequently mentioned in ( post-Vedic) Sanskrit and Pali literature The Bactrians were an Indo-European people originally of Bactria, situated in what is now modern northern Afghanistan, Tajikistan, and southern layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called It also has been conquered by a host of people, including the Median and Persian Empires, Alexander the Great, Kushans, Hepthalites[White Huns], Arabs, Turks, and Mongols. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Hephthalites or White Huns were a Central Asian Nomadic confederation whose precise origins and composition remain obscure The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family In recent times, invasions from the British, Soviets, and most recently by the United States and their allies have taken place. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the On the other hand, native entities have invaded surrounding regions in Iranian plateau and Indian subcontinent to form empires of their own. The Iranian Plateau, also known as the Persian plateau is a Geological formation in Southwest Asia, Southern This article deals with the geophysical region in Asia For geopolitical treatments see South Asia.
Between 2000 and 1200 BC, Indo-European-speaking Aryans are thought to have been in the region of northern Afghanistan. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" It is unlikely[33] that the Aryans themselves originated in Afghanistan although they did migrate from there south towards India and west towards Persia, but they also migrated into Europe via north of the Caspian. Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia These Aryans set up a nation that during the rule of Medes and Achaemenid Persians which became known as Aryānām Xšaθra or Airyānem Vāejah. The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Airyanəm Vaējah, which approximately means "expanse of the Aryans," is a reference in the Zoroastrian Avesta ( Vendidad, Farg Original homelands of the Aryans have been proposed as Anatolia, Kurdistan, Central Asia, Iran, or Northern India, with the directions of the historical migration varying accordingly. Aryan is an English word derived from the Sanskrit " Ārya " meaning "noble" or "honorable" [34][35] Later, during the rule of Ashkanian, Sasanian and after, it was called Erānshahr (Persian: ايرانشهر - Īrānšahr) meaning "Dominion of the Aryans. Parthia ( Middle Persian: اشکانیان Ashkâniân) was an Iranian civilization situated in the northeastern part of modern Iran The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire "
It has been speculated that Zoroastrianism might have originated in what is now Afghanistan between 1800 to 800 BC, as Zoroaster lived and died in Balkh. The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Zoroaster ( Latinized from Greek variants) or Zarathushtra (from Avestan Zaraθuštra) also referred to as Zartosht (زرتشت Balkh ( - Balḫ) also known as Bactra, was once a major world city but was destroyed entirely by the Mongols. . [36][37] Ancient Eastern Iranian languages, such as Avestan, may have been spoken in this region around the time of the rise of Zoroastrianism. The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. Avestan is an Eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the Zoroastrian Avesta. By the middle of the sixth century BC, the Persian Empire of the Achaemenid Persians overthrew the Median Empire and incorporated Afghanistan (known as Arachosia to the Greeks) within its boundaries. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who lived in the northwestern portions of present-day Iran. Arachosia (ˌærəˈkoʊʒə, Arakhōsia) or Arachotae (əˈrækəˌtiː, Arakhōtai) is the latinized form of Greek name of an Achaemenid Alexander the Great conquered Afghanistan after 330 BCE. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Following Alexander's brief occupation, the successor state of the Seleucid Empire controlled the area until 305 BCE, when they gave most of the area to the Mauryan Empire as part of an alliance treaty. The Seleucid Empire /sə'lusɪd/ ( 312 - 63 BC) was a Hellenistic empire i The Maurya Empire ( 322 – 185 BCE) ruled by the Mauryan dynasty was a geographically extensive and powerful political and military During Mauryan rule, Buddhism became the dominant religion in the region. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices The Mauryans were overthrown by the Sunga Dynasty in 185 BCE, leading to the Hellenistic reconquest of Afghanistan by the Greco-Bactrians by 180 BCE. For other uses of the term Sunga see Sunga (disambiguation The Sunga Empire (or Shunga Empire) is a Magadha This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Gr(aeco-Bactrian Kingdom was the easternmost part of the Hellenistic world covering Bactria and Sogdiana in Central Asia from 250 Much of Afghanistan soon broke away from the Greco-Bactrians and became part of the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greek Kingdom (or sometimes Graeco-Indian Kingdom) covered various parts of the northwest and northern Indian subcontinent during the last two centuries The Indo-Greeks were defeated by the Indo-Scythians and expelled from most of Afghanistan by the end of the 2nd century BCE
During the first century, the Parthian Empire subjugated Afghanistan, but lost it to their Indo-Parthian vassals. The Indo-Scythians are a branch of the Indo-Iranian Sakas ( Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into Bactria, The Buddhas of Bamyan ( - but hay-e bamiyaan) were two monumental statues of standing Buddhas carved into the side of a cliff in the Bamyan valley Buddharūpa (बुद्धरूप literally 'Form of the Awakened One' is the Sanskrit and Pali term used in Buddhism for statues or models of the The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. The Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century by Gondophares, and at its greatest extent extended into areas that are in present-day Afghanistan In the mid to late 1st century AD the vast Kushan Empire, centered in modern Afghanistan, became great patrons of Buddhist culture. The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Kushans were defeated by the Sassanids in the third century. The Sassanid Empire or Sassanian Dynasty or Sassanian Dynasty (ساسانیان) is the name used for the third Iranian dynasty and the second Persian empire Although various rulers calling themselves Kushanshas (generally known as Indo-Sassanids) continued to rule at least parts of the region, they were probably more or less subject to the Sassanids. The Indo-Sassanids, Kushano-Sassanids or Kushanshas (also Indo-Sassanians) were a branch of the Sassanid Persians who established their The Indo-Sassanids, Kushano-Sassanids or Kushanshas (also Indo-Sassanians) were a branch of the Sassanid Persians who established their [38] The late Kushans were followed by the Kidarite Huns[39] who, in turn, were replaced by the short-lived but powerful Hephthalites, as rulers of the region in the first half of the fifth century. The Kidarite (Chinese Ki-To-Lo dynasty of the "Ki" clan led the Huna and came from the proto- Mongolic Uar about whom it has been The Hephthalites or White Huns were a Central Asian Nomadic confederation whose precise origins and composition remain obscure [40] The Hephthalites were defeated by the Sasanian king Khosrau I in AD 557, who re-established Sassanid power in Persia. Khosrau I or Khosrow I ( Chosroes I in classical sources most commonly known in Persian as Anushirvan, Persian انوشيروان meaning However, the successors of Kushans and Hepthalites established a small dynasty in Kabulistan called Kushano-Hephthalites or Kabul-Shahan/Shahi, who were later defeated by the Muslim Arab armies and finally conquered by Muslim Turkish armies led by the Ghaznavids. Kabulistan ( is a historical term referring to the eastern territories of Khorasan that is centered around present-day Kabul, Afghanistan. For a town in Bareilly District India see Shahi Uttar Pradesh. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk.
Islamic conquest of the region
In the Middle Ages, up to the nineteenth century, Afghanistan was part of a larger region known as Greater Khorasan. The Islamic conquest of Afghanistan ( 656 - 870 CE began after the Islamic conquest of Persia, when Arab Muslims shattered the might of the Greater Khorasan (خراسان بزرگ (also written Khorasaan, Khurasan and Khurasaan) is a modern term for eastern territories of ancient Persia [41][42][43] Several important centers of Khorāsān are thus located in modern Afghanistan, such as Balkh, Herat, Ghazni and Kabul. Balkh ( - Balḫ) also known as Bactra, was once a major world city but was destroyed entirely by the Mongols. area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Ghazni City ( - Ğaznī; Ghazna and Ghaznīn are the old names for Ghazni } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with It was during this period of time when Islam was introduced and spread in the area. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation.
The region of Afghanistan became the center of various important empires, including that of the Samanids (875–999), Ghaznavids (977–1187), Seljukids (1037–1194), Ghurids (1149–1212), and Timurids (1370–1506). The Samanids (819–999 ( Sāmāniyān) were a Persian dynasty in Central Asia and Greater Khorasan, named after its founder Saman The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. The Seljuq (also Seljuq Turks, Seldjuks, Seldjuqs, Seljuks; in Turkish Selçuklular; in Ṣaljūqīyān; in The Ghurids (or Ghorids; self-designation Shansabānī) ( were a Persian Sunni - Ismaili Muslim dynasty in Khorasan The Timurids, self-designated Gurkānī ( were a Persianate Central Asian Sunni Muslim dynasty Among them, the periods of Ghaznavids[44] of Ghazni, and Timurids[45] of Heart are considered as some of the most brilliant eras of Afghanistan's history.
In 1219 the region was overrun by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, who devastated the land. Genghis Khan ( or;, Chinggis Khaan, ʧiŋgɪs χaːŋ Činggis Qaɣan; 1162–1227 born (meaning "ironworker" was the Mongol founder Their rule continued with the Ilkhanates [one of 4 Subordinate Mongolian Khanates], and was extended further following the invasion of Timur Lang ("Tamerlane"), a ruler from Central Asia. The Ilkhanate, also spelled Il-khanate or Il Khanate (Ил Хан улс Il Khan uls;) was a Mongol Khanate established in An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory Timur also written Emir Timur or Amir Temur ( Chagatai: تیمور - Tēmōr " Iron " (1336 – 19 February 1405 among In 1504, Babur, a descendant of both Timur Lang and Genghis Khan, established the Mughal Empire with its capital at Kabul. Babur ( February 14 1483 - December 26 1530) was a Muslim conqueror from Central Asia who following a series of setbacks The Mughal Empire ( Persian and self-designation گورکانی; مغلیہ سلطنت) was an Islamic imperial power which ruled most } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with By the early 1700s, Afghanistan was controlled by several ruling groups: Uzbeks to the north, Safavids to the west and the remaining larger area by the Mughals or self-ruled by local Afghan tribes. The Uzbeks (Self designation sg O‘zbek, pl O‘zbeklar) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. The Safavids ( صفوی) were an Iranian ref>Helen Chapin Metz
Hotaki dynasty: first Afghan rule
In 1709, Mir Wais Hotak, a local Afghan (Pashtun) from the Ghilzai clan, overthrew and killed Gurgin Khan, the Safavid governor of Kandahar. The Hotaki dynasty (1709-1738 was founded in 1709 by Mirwais Khan Hotak, an ethnic Pashtun ( Afghan) from the Ghilzai clan of Kandahar province Mir Wais Khan Hotak (1673-1715 was a Pashtun tribal chief of the Ghilzai clan from Kandahar, who founded the Hotaki dynasty that ruled The Ghilzais (also known as Khiljis or Ghaljis) are a large Pashtun Tribe located mainly in southeastern Afghanistan, between George XI ( Georgian: გიორგი XI Giorgi XI; Persian: گرگینخان, Gurgin Khan or Gorgin Khan) (1651 – Kandahar or Qandahar ( Pashto: کندھار, Persian: قندهار) is one of the largest of the thirty-four Provinces of Mir Wais successfully defeated the Persians, who were attempting to convert the local population of Kandahar from Sunni to the Shia sect of Islam. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Mir Wais held the region of Kandahar until his death in 1715 and was succeeded by his son Mir Mahmud Hotaki. Mir Mahmud Hotaki (1697? — April 25 1725) was an Afghan tribal leader who overthrew the Safavid dynasty to become Shah of Persia In 1722, Mir Mahmud led an Afghan army to Isfahan (Iran), sacked the city and proclaimed himself King of Persia. Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. However, the great majority still rejected the Afghan regime as usurping, and after the massacre of thousands of civilians in Isfahan by the Afghans – including more than three thousand religious scholars, nobles, and members of the Safavid family – the Hotaki dynasty was eventually removed from power by a new ruler, Nadir Shah of Persia. The Hotaki dynasty (1709-1738 was founded in 1709 by Mirwais Khan Hotak, an ethnic Pashtun ( Afghan) from the Ghilzai clan of Kandahar province Nāder Shāh Afshār ( also known as Nāder Qoli Beg - نادر قلی بیگ or Tahmāsp Qoli Khān - تهماسپ قلی خان) (November [46][47]
Durrani Empire: beginnings of the "Afghan state"
In 1738 Nadir Shah and his army, which included four thousand Pashtuns of the Abdali clan,[48] conquered the region of Kandahar; in the same year he occupied Ghazni, Kabul and Lahore. The Durrani Empire (also referred to as the Afghan Empire) was a large state based in modern Afghanistan and Pakistan and later included northeastern ( lahor is the capital of the Pakistani province of Punjab and is the second largest city in Pakistan after Karachi. On June 19, 1747, Nadir Shah was assassinated, possibly planned by his nephew Ali Qoli. Adil Shah Afshar or Ali Qoli ( Modern Persian: عادل شاه افشار was Shah of Persia from 1747 until 1748 In the same year, one of Nadir's military commanders and personal bodyguard, Ahmad Shah Abdali, a Pashtun from the Abdali clan, called for a loya jirga following Nadir's death. Ahmad Shāh Durrānī (c1723-1773 ( also known as Ahmad Shāh Abdālī ( احمد شاه ابدالي) and born as Ahmad Khān Abdālī, A Loya Jirga ( Pashto: لويه جرګه, Persian: جرگه بزرگ) is a "grand assembly" a phrase taken from the name of large The Afghans gathered at Kandahar and chose Ahmad Shah as their King. For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and Since then, he is often regarded as the founder of modern Afghanistan. [1][49][50] After the inauguration, he changed his title or clans' name to "Durrani", which derives from the Persian word Durr, meaning "Pearl". [48]
By 1751 Ahmad Shah Durrani and his Afghan army conquered the entire present-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, Khorasan and Kohistan provinces of Iran, along with Delhi in India. Delhi (दिल्ली ਦਿੱਲੀ دلی d̪ɪlːiː sometimes referred to as Dilli) is the second largest metropolis of India, with a population [22] In October 1772, Ahmad Shah retired to his home in Maruf, Kandahar, where he died peacefully. Maruf may refer to Maruf Afghanistan Maruf Pakistan Maruf (film - a 2002 Turkish film Maruf Chouhan He was succeeded by his son, Timur Shah Durrani, who transferred the capital from Kandahar to Kabul. Timur Shah Durrani ( 1748 - May 18, 1793) was the second ruler of the Durrani Empire from October 16, 1772, until his death Timur died in 1793 and was finally succeeded by his son Zaman Shah Durrani. Zaman Shah Durrani (c1770 - 1844 was ruler of the Durrani Empire from 1793 until 1800
European influence and the creation of the state of Afghanistan
During the nineteenth century, following the Anglo-Afghan wars (fought 1839–42, 1878–80, and lastly in 1919) and the ascension of the Barakzai dynasty, Afghanistan saw much of its territory and autonomy ceded to the United Kingdom. Bārakzai (singular Bārakzay) is a common ethnic name among the Pashtuns of Afghanistan and western Pakistan and among the Baloch The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The UK exercised a great deal of influence, and it was not until King Amanullah Khan acceded to the throne in 1919 that Afghanistan re-gained complete independence over its foreign affairs (see "The Great Game"). For the film see The Great Game (film The Great Game was a term used for the strategic rivalry and conflict between the British Empire During the period of British intervention in Afghanistan, ethnic Pashtun territories were divided by the Durand Line. The Durand Line is the term for the 2640 kilometer (1610 mile Border between Afghanistan and Pakistan. This would lead to strained relations between Afghanistan and British India – and later the new state of Pakistan – over what came to be known as the Pashtunistan debate. Pashtunistan ( Pashto: پښتونستان Persian: پشتونستان or Pakhtunistan ( Persian, Urdu: پختونستان is the The longest period of stability in Afghanistan was between 1933 and 1973, when the country was under the rule of King Zahir Shah. Mohammed Zahir Shah ( 15 October 1914 &ndash 23 July 2007) was the last King ( Shah) of Afghanistan, reigning
Republic
However, in 1973 Zahir Shah's brother-in-law, Mohammed Daoud Khan, launched a bloodless coup and became the first President of Afghanistan. The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was a Soviet -backed government in Afghanistan between 1978 and 1992. Mohammed Daoud Khan ( July 18, 1909 – April 28, 1978) was a politician in Afghanistan who overthrew the monarchy of Zahir Shah Afghanistan has only intermittently been a Republic - between 1973-1992 and from 2001 onwards - at other times being governed by a variety of kings Emirs
In 1978 a prominent member of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (PDPA), Mir Akbar Khyber (or "Kaibar"), was killed by the government. The People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan (حزب دموکراتيک خلق افغانستان د افغانستان د خلق دموکراټیک ګوند PDPA was a Communist The leaders of PDPA apparently feared that Daoud was planning to exterminate them all, especially since most of them were arrested by the government shortly after. Hafizullah Amin and a number of military wing officers of the PDPA managed to remain at large and organised an uprising. Hafizullah Amin ( حفيظ الله امين) ( August 1, 1929 – December 27, 1979) was the second President of Afghanistan
The PDPA, led by Nur Mohammad Taraki, Babrak Karmal and Amin overthrew the regime of Mohammad Daoud, who was killed along with his family. Nur Muhammad Taraki ( July 15, 1913 – September 14, 1979) was an ethnic Pashtun Politician from Afghanistan Babrak Karmal ( January 6, 1929 - December 3, 1996) was the third President of Afghanistan (1979 - 1986 during the period of the communist The uprising was known as the Great Saur Revolution ('Saur' means 'April' in Pushto). Khalq ("Masses" was a fraction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. On 1 May, Taraki became President , Prime Minister and General Secretary of the PDPA. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. President is a Title leaders of Organizations companies, Trade unions universities, and countries. This article is about the government position For other uses see Prime Minister (disambiguation. The term General Secretary (alternatively First Secretary) denotes a leader of various unions parties churches or associations The country was then renamed the Democratic Republic of Afghanistan (DRA), and the PDPA regime lasted, in some form or another, until April 1992. The Democratic Republic of Afghanistan was a Soviet -backed government in Afghanistan between 1978 and 1992.
Some are of the opinion that the 1978 Khalq uprising against the government of Daoud Khan was essentially a resurgence by the Ghilzai tribe of the Pashtun against the Durrani (the tribe of Daoud Khan and the previous monarchy). Khalq ("Masses" was a fraction of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. The Ghilzais (also known as Khiljis or Ghaljis) are a large Pashtun Tribe located mainly in southeastern Afghanistan, between Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called Durrānī ( or Abdālī ( is the name of a chief Tribal Confederation in Afghanistan and Pakistan. [51]
Once in power, the PDPA moved to permit freedom of religion and carried out an ambitious land reform, waiving farmers' debts countrywide. Freedom of religion is the freedom of an individual or community in public or private to manifest religion or belief in teaching practice worship and observance Land reforms (also Agrarian reform, though that can have a broader meaning is an often- controversial alteration in the societal arrangements whereby government They also made a number of statements on women’s rights and introduced women to political life. A prominent example was Anahita Ratebzad, who was a major Marxist leader and a member of the Revolutionary Council. Ratebzad wrote the famous New Kabul Times editorial (May 28, 1978) which declared: “Privileges which women, by right, must have are equal education, job security, health services, and free time to rear a healthy generation for building the future of the country . Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Year 1978 ( MCMLXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1978 Gregorian calendar) . . . Educating and enlightening women is now the subject of close government attention. ”[52]
The majority of people in the cities including Kabul either welcomed or were ambivalent to these policies. However, the secular nature of the government made it unpopular with religiously conservative Afghans in the villages and the countryside, who favoured traditionalist 'Islamic' restrictions on women's rights and in daily life. Secularity ( adjective form secular) is the state of being separate from Religion.
The U. S. saw the situation as a prime opportunity to weaken the Soviet Union. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 As part of a Cold War strategy, in 1979 the United States government (under President Jimmy Carter and National Security Advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski) began to covertly fund and train anti-government Mujahideen forces through the Pakistani secret service known as Inter Services Intelligence (ISI), with the intention of provoking Soviet intervention, (according to Brzezinski). Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. James Earl "Jimmy" Carter Jr (born October 1 1924 was the thirty-ninth President of the United States, serving from 1977 to 1981 and the recipient of the 2002 Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzezinski (Zbigniew Kazimierz Brzeziński ˈzbigɲev bʐɛˈʑiɲski: (born March 28 1928 Warsaw, Poland) is a Polish-American A Mujahid (Arabic ar مجاهد, literally "struggler" is a Muslim involved in a Jihad, id est fighting in a war or History After independence in 1947 two new intelligence agencies were created in Pakistan called the Intelligence Bureau (IB and Military Intelligence [53] The Mujahideen belonged to various different factions, but all shared, to varying degrees, a similarly conservative 'Islamic' ideology.
In March 1979 Hafizullah Amin took over as prime minister, retaining the position of field marshal and becoming vice-president of the Supreme Defence Council. For other meanings see Field Marshal (disambiguation Field marshal is a military officer rank Taraki remained President and in control of the Army. On 14 September, Amin overthrew Taraki, who died or was killed. Events 81 - Domitian becomes Emperor of the Roman Empire upon the death of his brother Titus.
Soviet invasion and civil war
In order to bolster the Parcham faction , the Soviet Union—citing the 1978 Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Good Neighborliness that had been signed between the two countries—intervened on December 24, 1979. The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving The Civil war in Afghanistan, also known as Afghan Civil War, began in 1978 and has continued Parcham (پرچم meaning "Banner" or "Flag" was the name of one of the factions of the People's Democratic Party of Afghanistan. Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Year 1979 ( MCMLXXIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link displays the 1979 Gregorian calendar) Over 100,000 Soviet troops took part in the invasion backed by another 100,000 plus and by members of the Parcham faction. Amin was killed and replaced by Babrak Karmal.
The Soviet occupation resulted in the killings of at least 600,000 to 2 million Afghan civilians. Over five million Afghans fled their country to Pakistan, Iran and other parts of the world. Afghan refugees (known as Muhajir Afghans in South Asia) are people who fled Afghanistan after the Soviet invasion in 1979 and during the Faced with mounting international pressure and great number of casualties on both sides, the Soviets withdrew in 1989.
The Soviet withdrawal from the DRA was seen as an ideological victory in the US, which had backed the Mujahideen through three US presidential administrations in order to counter Soviet influence in the vicinity of the oil-rich Persian Gulf. Mikhail Aleksandrovich Evstafiev ( Russian: Михаил Александрович Евстафьев born in 1963 is a Russian Artist, Photographer The Persian Gulf, in the Southwest Asian region is an extension of the
Following the removal of the Soviet forces, the US and its allies lost interest in Afghanistan and did little to help rebuild the war-ravaged country or influence events there. The USSR continued to support President Najibullah (former head of the Afghan secret service, KHAD) until 1992 when the new Russian government refused to sell oil products to the Najibullah regime. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Najibullah ( Pashto: نجيب الله; born August 1947 killed September 27, 1996) was the fourth and last President of the Khadamat-e Etela'at-e Dawlati ( Persian ' خدمات اطلاعات دولتی') ( English: "State Information Agency" almost always [54]
Because of the fighting, a number of elites and intellectuals fled to take refuge abroad. This led to a leadership imbalance in Afghanistan. Fighting continued among the victorious Mujahideen factions, which gave rise to a state of warlordism. The most serious fighting during this period occurred in 1994, when over 10,000 people were killed in Kabul alone. It was at this time that the Taliban developed as a politico-religious force, eventually seizing Kabul in 1996. By the end of 2000 the Taliban had captured 95% of the country.
During the Taliban's seven-year rule, much of the population experienced restrictions on their freedom and violations of their human rights. Women were banned from jobs, girls forbidden to attend schools or universities. [55] Those who resisted were punished instantly. Communists were systematically eradicated and thieves were punished by amputating one of their hands or feet. [56] Meanwhile, the Taliban managed to nearly eradicate the majority of the opium production by 2001. [57]
2001-present war in Afghanistan
Following the September 11, 2001 attacks the United States launched Operation Enduring Freedom, a military campaign to destroy the al-Qaeda terrorist training camps inside Afghanistan. The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF is the official name used by the U The US military also threatened to overthrow the Taliban government for refusing to hand over Osama bin Laden and several al-Qaida members. Osama bin Laden, with some spelling variations is the name used in English to refer to (أسامة بن محمد بن عوض بن لادن born 10 March The US made a common cause with the former Afghan Mujahideen to achieve its ends, including the Northern Alliance, a militia still recognized by the UN as the Afghan government. The United Islamic Front for the Salvation of Afghanistan ( UIF, Jabha-yi Muttahid-i Islami-yi Milli bara-yi Nijat-i Afghanistan) also known as the Northern The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security
In late 2001, US Special Forces invaded Afghanistan to aid anti-Taliban militias, backed by US air strikes against Taliban and Al Qaeda targets, culminating in the seizure of Kabul by the Northern Alliance and the overthrow of the Taliban, with many local warlords switching allegiance from the Taliban to the Northern Alliance.
In December of the same year, leaders of the former Afghan mujahideen and diaspora met in Germany, and agreed on a plan for the formulation of a new democratic government that resulted in the inauguration of Hamid Karzai, an ethnic Pashtun of the Durrani clan (from which the royal family was drawn) from the southern city of Kandahar, as Chairman of the Afghan Interim Authority. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Officially the Agreement on Provisional Arrangements in Afghanistan Pending the Re-Establishment of Permanent Government Institutions, the Bonn Agreement was the initial series Hamid Karzai ( حامد کرزي, حامد کرزي) (born 24 December 1957) is the current President of Afghanistan, since December See also Civil war in Afghanistan This article on the History of Afghanistan since 1992 covers the time period from the fall of the Najibullah government in 1992 Karzai was a top adviser to the UNOCAL corporation, which negotiatied with the Taliban to construct a Central Asia Gas (CentGas) pipeline from Turkmenistan through western Afghanistan to Pakistan. Union Oil Company of California dba Unocal is a defunct company that was a major petroleum explorer and marketer in the late 19th century through the 20th century and into the early Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Turkmenistan ( Türkmenistan; also known as Turkmenia) is a Turkic country in Central Asia.
After a nationwide Loya Jirga in 2002, Karzai was chosen by the representatives to assume the title as Interim President of Afghanistan. A Loya Jirga ( Pashto: لويه جرګه, Persian: جرگه بزرگ) is a "grand assembly" a phrase taken from the name of large The country convened a Constitutional Loya Jirga (Council of Elders) in 2003 and a new constitution was ratified in January 2004. The Constitution of Afghanistan became the official law of Afghanistan when the 2003 Loya jirga approved it by the Consensus on January 4, Following an election in October 2004, Hamid Karzai won and became the President of the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan. Legislative elections were held in September 2005. The National Assembly – the first freely elected legislature in Afghanistan since 1973 – sat in December 2005, and was noteworthy for the inclusion of women as voters, candidates, and elected members.
As the country continues to rebuild and recover, it is still struggling against poverty, poor infrastructure, large concentration of land mines and other unexploded ordnance, as well as a huge illegal poppy cultivation and opium trade. The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities. Kunar ( کُنَر) is one of the thirty-four Provinces of Afghanistan, located in the northeastern part of the country and on the border with Pakistan 's Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids A land mine is an Explosive device designed to be placed on or in the ground to explode when triggered by an operator or the Proximity of a vehicle person The opium poppy, Papaver somniferum, is the type of Poppy from which Opium and many refined opiates such as Morphine, Thebaine Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Afghanistan also remains subject to occasionally violent political jockeying. The country continues to grapple with the Taliban insurgency and the threat of attacks from a few remaining al Qaeda. The Taliban insurgency took root shortly after the group's fall from power following the 2001 war in Afghanistan.
At the start of 2007 reports of the Taliban's increasing presence in Afghanistan led the US to consider longer tours of duty and even an increase in troop numbers. According to a report filed by Robert Burns of Associated Press on January 16, 2007, "U. Events 27 BC - The title Augustus is bestowed upon Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian by the Roman Senate. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. S. military officials cited new evidence that the Pakistani military, which has long-standing ties to the Taliban movement, has turned a blind eye to the incursions. " Also, "The number of insurgent attacks is up 300 percent since September, 2006, when the Pakistani government put into effect a peace arrangement with tribal leaders in the north Waziristan area, along Afghanistan's eastern border, a U. S. military intelligence officer told reporters. "
Government and politics
Politics in Afghanistan has historically consisted of power struggles, bloody coups and unstable transfers of power. This is a timeline of Afghanistan. To read about the background to these events see History of Afghanistan. Afghanistan has been invaded many times its boundaries and legitimate government have almost always been in dispute In recent years the politics of Afghanistan have been dominated by the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, by the NATO forces and the subsequent efforts With the exception of a military junta, the country has been governed by nearly every system of government over the past century, including a monarchy, republic, theocracy and communist state. A military junta is a government ruled by a committee of military leaders A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its Theocracy is a form of government in which a god or deity is recognized as the supreme civil ruler Communist state is a term used by many Political scientists to describe a Form of government in which the State operates under a one-party system The constitution ratified by the 2003 Loya jirga restructured the government as an Islamic republic consisting of three branches, (executive, legislature and judiciary). A 502-delegate Loya jirga convened in Kabul, Afghanistan, on December 14, 2003, to consider the proposed Afghan Constitution Islamic Republic is the name given to several states in the Muslim world including the Islamic Republics of Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan and Mauritania In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State
Afghanistan is currently led by President Hamid Karzai, who was elected in October 2004. Hamid Karzai ( حامد کرزي, حامد کرزي) (born 24 December 1957) is the current President of Afghanistan, since December The current parliament was elected in 2005. The National Assembly is Afghanistan 's national Legislature. Among the elected officials were former mujahadeen, Taliban members, communists, reformists, and Islamic fundamentalists. Socialist Reformism is the belief that gradual democratic changes in a Society can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic relations and political structures Islamic fundamentalism Arabic: usul (from usul the "fundamentals"] is a term used to describe religious ideologies seen as advocating a return to the 28% of the delegates elected were women, 3 points more than the 25% minimum guaranteed under the constitution. This made Afghanistan, long known under the Taliban for its oppression of women, one of the leading countries in terms of female representation. in power in Afghanistan the Taliban became notorious internationally within the Western Community for their treatment of women. Construction for a new parliament building began on August 29, 2005.
The Supreme Court of Afghanistan is currently led by Chief Justice Abdul Salam Azimi, a former university professor who had been legal advisor to the president. The Afghan Supreme Court ( Stara Makama or ستره محكمه) is the Court of last resort in Afghanistan. Abdul Salam Azimi (born 1936 has been the Chief Justice of Afghanistan and as such the head of the Afghan Supreme Court since May 2006 [58] The previous court, appointed during the time of the interim government, had been dominated by fundamentalist religious figures, including Chief Justice Faisal Ahmad Shinwari. Faisal Ahmad Shinwari (alternatively Fazl Hadi Shinwari) is a citizen of Afghanistan, from Jalalabad, and an early appointee in Hamid Karzai 's The court had issued numerous questionable rulings, such as banning cable television, seeking to ban a candidate in the 2004 presidential election and limiting the rights of women, as well as overstepping its constitutional authority by issuing rulings on subjects not yet brought before the court. The current court is seen as more moderate and led by more technocrats than the previous court, although it has yet to issue any rulings. Technocracy: A form of government in which scientists and technical experts are in control "technocracy is described as that society in which those who govern justify themselves
- See also: Constitution of Afghanistan
Law enforcement and military
Afghanistan currently has more than 70,000 national police officers, with plans to recruit more so that the total number can reach 80,000. The Afghan National Police is the primary national police force in Afghanistan. They are being trained by and through the Afghanistan Police Program. Afghanistan Police Program is an US -funded program designed to train and equip part of the Afghan National Police (ANP Although the police officially are responsible for maintaining civil order, sometimes local and regional military commanders continue to exercise control in the hinterland. Police have been accused of improper treatment and detention of prisoners. In 2003 the mandate of the International Security Assistance Force, now under command of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was extended and expanded beyond the Kabul area. The North Atlantic Treaty } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with However, in some areas unoccupied by those forces, local militias maintain control. In many areas, crimes have gone uninvestigated because of insufficient police and/or communications. Troops of the Afghan National Army have been sent to quell fighting in some regions lacking police protection. The Afghan National Army (ANA is a service branch of the Military of Afghanistan currently being trained by the coalition forces to ultimately take the lead in [59]
Administrative divisions
Afghanistan is administratively divided into thirty-four (34) provinces (welayats), and for each province there is a capital. The Provinces of Afghanistan (locally recognized as wilayats - ولايت are the primary Administrative divisions of Afghanistan. The provinces of Afghanistan are divided into districts ( Walaswalai) A province is a territorial unit almost always an Administrative division. Each province is then divided into many provincial districts, and each district normally covers a city or several townships. Districts are a type of Administrative division, in some countries managed by a Local government. A township (or Municipality) is a settlement which has the status and powers of a unit of local government
The Governor of the province is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, and the Prefects for the districts of the province will be appointed by the provincial Governor. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government Prefect (from the Latin praefectus, perfect participle of praeficere: "make in front" i The Governor is the representative of the central government of Afghanistan, and is responsible for all administrative and formal issues. The provincial Chief of Police is appointed by the Ministry of Interior, who works together with the Governor on law enforcement for all the cities or districts of that province. Chief of Police is the title typically given to the head of a Police department, particularly in North America.
There is an exception in the capital city (Kabul) where the Mayor is selected by the President of Afghanistan, and is completely independent from the prefecture of the Kabul Province. A mayor (from the Latin māior, meaning "greater" is a modern title used in many countries for the highest ranking officer in a municipal government Afghanistan has only intermittently been a Republic - between 1973-1992 and from 2001 onwards - at other times being governed by a variety of kings Emirs For subsequent types of praefectura, see Prefect. Prefecture (from the Latin Praefectura) indicates the office Kābul ( situated in the east of the country is one of the thirty-four Provinces of Afghanistan.
Demographics
- Further information: Refugees of Afghanistan
A July 2008 estimate of the total Afghani population is 32,738,376. The Demographics of Afghanistan are ethnically and linguistically mixed Afghan refugees (known as Muhajir Afghans in South Asia) are people who fled Afghanistan after the Soviet invasion in 1979 and during the [60]
Largest cities
- See also: List of cities in Afghanistan and Places in Afghanistan
The only city in Afghanistan with over one million residents is its capital, Kabul. The following are twelve largest cities of Afghanistan. The populations given are the 2006 estimated figures by the Central Statistics Office of Afghanistan. Afghanistan 's capital city is Kabul. It is the powerhouse of the Afghan economy and is by far the largest city The other major cities in the country are, in order of population size, Kandahar, Herat, Mazar-e Sharif, Jalalabad, Ghazni and Kunduz. For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and area3018 sq mi Herāt ( classically called the Aria, is a city in western Afghanistan, in the province also known as Herāt. Mazār-e Sharīf ( is the fourth largest city of Afghanistan, with population of 300600 people (2006 estimate Jalalabad (Jalalkot ( Pashto: جلالکوټ، جلال اباد) is a city in eastern Afghanistan. Ghazni City ( - Ğaznī; Ghazna and Ghaznīn are the old names for Ghazni Kunduz ( قندوز) also known as Kundûz Qonduz Qondûz Konduz Kondûz Kondoz or Qhunduz is a city in northern Afghanistan, the capital
Ethnic groups
_in_Afghanistan.jpg/330px-Map_of_Ethnic_Groups_(in_Districts)_in_Afghanistan.jpg)
The population of Afghanistan is divided into a wide variety of ethnic groups. Because a systematic census has not been held in the country in decades, exact figures about the size and composition of the various ethnic groups are not available. [62] Therefore most figures are approximations only.
An approximate distribution of ethnic groups estimated by the CIA World Factbook[1] is as following:
Based on official census numbers from the 1960s to the 1980s, as well as information found in mainly scholarly sources, the Encyclopædia Iranica[61] gives the following list:
- 36. Pashtuns ( Pashto: پښتون Paṣtūn, Paxtūn, also rendered as Pushtuns, Pakhtuns, Pukhtuns) also called Tajik ( - Tādjīk; UniPers: Tâjik; Cyrillic: Тоҷик is a term generally applied to Persian-speaking people of The Hazāra ( are a Persian-speaking people residing in the central region of Afghanistan and northwestern Pakistan. The Uzbeks (Self designation sg O‘zbek, pl O‘zbeklar) are a Turkic people of Central Asia. Aimak (or Aimaq) is a term designating Persian -speaking Nomadic or semi-nomadic tribes of mixed Iranian and Mongolian stock inhabiting This article is about the Turkmen people of Turkmenistan. For the distinct group of Turk peoples of Iraq see Iraqi Turkmen. The Baloch ( بلوچ; alternative transliterations Baluch Balouch Bloach Balooch Balush Balosh Baloosh Baloush) are an Iranian people inhabiting Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and 4% Pashtun
- 33. 7% Tajik, Farsiwan, and Qezelbash
- 8. Fārsīwān ( or its more archaic version Pārsīwān - پارسیوان) is a general designation of the Persian-speakers in Afghanistan. Qizilbash or Kizilbash ( Nastaliq: قزلباش - Qizilbāš; Ottoman Turkish for "Red Heads" is a name given to a wide 0% Hazara
- 8. 0% Uzbek
- 4. 1% Aimak
- 3. 3% Turkmen
- 1. 6% Baloch
- 1. 9% other
Languages
The most common languages spoken in Afghanistan are Persian (Dari dialects) and Pashto. There are two official languages of Afghanistan, in addition to other languages that are spoken Both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. Statistics from the CIA World Factbook are listed in the chart in the sidebar, below the map of languages by region. Persian (Dari dialects) 50% and Pashto 35%; both are Indo-European languages from the Iranian languages sub-family. Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. Pashto and Persian are the official languages of the country. An official language is a Language that is given a special legal status in a particular Country, State, or other territory Hazaragi, spoken by the Hazara minority, is another dialect of Persian. Hazaragi is a variety of Persian, spoken by the Hazara people of Afghanistan, Iran and Pakistan. Other languages spoken include Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen) 9%, as well as 30 minor languages 4% (primarily Balochi, Nuristani, Pashai, Brahui, Pamiri languages, Hindko, etc. The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Uzbek ( O‘zbek tili or O'zbekcha in Latin script, Ўзбек тили in Cyrillic script; أۇزبېك ﺗﻴﻠی in Arabic Turkmen ( Latin script: türkmen Cyrillic: түркмен ISO 639 -1 tk ISO 639-2 tuk is the name of the national language of Turkmenistan Balochi (بلوچی also Baluchi, Baloci or Baluci) is a Northwestern Iranian language. The Nuristani languages are a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian language family, spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pashai are a Dardic ethno-linguistic group living primarily in eastern and northeastern Afghanistan. The Brahui (Urdu spelling بروہی or Bravi (براوِ Language, spoken by the Brahui, is a Dravidian language mainly spoken in The Pamir languages are a subgroup of the Iranian languages, spoken by Pamiri people in the Pamir Mountains, primarily along the Panj River and Hindko (هندکو /Hindkoŭ/ also Hindku, Hinko, or Lahnda, لَیہندا is an ancient Indo-Aryan language spoken in North Western ). Bilingualism is common. According to the Encyclopædia Iranica,[63] the Persian language is the mother tongue of roughly one-third of Afghanistan's population, while it is also the most widely used language of the country, spoken by around 80% of the population. It further states that Pashto is spoken by around 50% of the population. | _in_Afghanistan.jpg/330px-Map_of_Languages_(in_Districts)_in_Afghanistan.jpg) Languages of Afghanistan (percentages are from CIA World Factbook[1]) 50% Dari 35% Pashto 8% Uzbek 3% Turkmen 4% Balochi 2% other (Nuristani, Pashai, Brahui, etc. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the Pashto ( Naskh: پښتو pəʂ'to also rendered as Pakhto, Pushto, Pukhto, Pashtu, Pushtu, also known as Uzbek ( O‘zbek tili or O'zbekcha in Latin script, Ўзбек тили in Cyrillic script; أۇزبېك ﺗﻴﻠی in Arabic Turkmen ( Latin script: türkmen Cyrillic: түркмен ISO 639 -1 tk ISO 639-2 tuk is the name of the national language of Turkmenistan Balochi (بلوچی also Baluchi, Baloci or Baluci) is a Northwestern Iranian language. The Nuristani languages are a subgroup of the Indo-Iranian language family, spoken in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Pashai are a Dardic ethno-linguistic group living primarily in eastern and northeastern Afghanistan. ) |
Culture
Afghans display pride in their religion, country, ancestry, and above all, their independence. Like other highlanders, Afghans are regarded with mingled apprehension and condescension, for their high regard for personal honor, for their clan loyalty and for their readiness to carry and use arms to settle disputes. A clan is a group of People united by Kinship and descent, which is defined by perceived descent from a common ancestor [64] As clan warfare and internecine feuding has been one of their chief occupations since time immemorial, this individualistic trait has made it difficult for foreign invaders to hold the region.
Afghanistan has a complex history that has survived either in its current cultures or in the form of various languages and monuments. However, many of the country's historic monuments have been damaged in recent wars. The two famous statues of Buddha in the Bamyan Province were destroyed by the Taliban, who regarded them as idolatrous. Idolatry is usually defined as Worship of any Cult image, Idea, or object, as opposed to the worship of a monotheistic God. Other famous sites include the cities of Kandahar, Heart, Ghazni and Balkh. For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and The Minaret of Jam, in the Hari River valley, is a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Hari River (Persian Rudkhaneh-ye Hari Rud sometimes Harirud) is a River flowing 1100 kilometers from the mountains of central Afghanistan A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex The cloak worn by Muhammad is stored inside the famous Khalka Sharifa in Kandahar City. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics
Buzkashi is a national sport in Afghanistan. Buzkashi, Kok-boru or Oglak Tartis ( Persian: بزکشی bozkæšī, Tajik: бузкашӣ buzkašī: "goat It is similar to polo and played by horsemen in two teams, each trying to grab and hold a goat carcass. Polo is a team sport played outdoors on Horseback in which the objective is to score goals against an opposing team The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe Afghan hounds (a type of running dog) also originated in Afghanistan. The Afghan Hound is a very old Sighthound Dog breed. Distinguished by its thick fine The dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) is a domesticated Subspecies of the gray wolf, a Mammal of the Canidae family of the order
Although literacy levels are very low, classic Persian poetry plays a very important role in the Afghan culture. Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Poetry has always been one of the major educational pillars in Iran and Afghanistan, to the level that it has integrated itself into culture. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. Persian culture has, and continues to, exert a great influence over Afghan culture. Private poetry competition events known as “musha’era” are quite common even among ordinary people. Almost every homeowner owns one or more poetry collections of some sort, even if they are not read often.
The eastern dialects of the Persian language are popularly known as "Dari". The name itself derives from "Pārsī-e Darbārī", meaning Persian of the royal courts. The ancient term Darī – one of the original names of the Persian language – was revived in the Afghan constitution of 1964, and was intended to signify that Afghans consider their country the cradle of the language. Hence, the name Fārsī, the language of Fārs, is strictly avoided. Fars (pronounced/fɑː(ɹs ( Persian: فارس Fârs) is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. With this point in mind, we can consider the development of Dari or Persian literature in the political entity known as Afghanistan. "[65]
Many of the famous Persian poets of the tenth to fifteenth centuries stem from Khorasan where is now known as Afghanistan. list is not comprehensive but is continuously being expanded and includes Persian writers and poets from Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria, Afghanistan They were mostly also scholars in many disciplines like languages, natural sciences, medicine, religion and astronomy.
- Mawlānā Rumi, who was born and educated in Balkh in the thirteenth century and moved to Konya in modern-day Turkey
- Rabi'a Balkhi (the first poetess in the History of Persian Poetry, tenth century, native of Balkh)
- Daqiqi Balkhi (tenth century, native of Balkh)
- Farrukhi Sistani (tenth century, the Ghaznavids royal poet)
- Unsuri Balkhi (a tenth/eleventh century poet, native of Balkh)
- Khwaja Abdullah Ansari (eleventh century, from Herat)
- Nasir Khusraw (eleventh century, from Qubadyan near Balkh)
- Anvari (twelfth century, lived and died in Balkh)
- Sanā'ī Ghaznawi (twelfth century, native of Ghazni)
- Jāmī of Herāt (fifteenth century, native of Herat in western Afghanistan), and his nephew Abdullah Hatifi Herawi, a well-known poet
- Alī Sher Navā'ī (fifteenth century, Herat). Konya ( قونیه; also Koniah, Konieh, Konia, and Qunia; historically also known as Iconium ( Latin Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Rabe'a Balkhi ( also called as Rabi'ah bint Kaab Quzdari or Ghozdary (in Persian: رابعه قزداری, or just as Rabe'ah was most likely Abu Mansur Muhammad Ibn Ahmad Daqiqi Balkhi (935/942-976/980 (in ابو منصور محمد بن احمد دقیقی sometimes referred to as Daqiqi (also Dakiki Daghighi Abul Hasan Ali ibn Julugh Farrukhi Sistani was a 10th century and 11th century royal poet of Ghaznavids. The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Sunni Muslim state founded by a dynasty of Turkic Mamluk. Abul Qasim Hasan Unsuri ( (d 1039/1040 was a 10-11th century Persian ( Tajik) poet Abu Ismaïl Abdullah ibn Abi-Mansour Mohammad or Khajah Abdullah Ansari of Herat (1006-1088 ( خواجه عبدالله انصاری) was a famous Afghan Abu Mo’in Hamid ad-Din Nasir ibn Khusraw al-Qubadiani or Nasir Khusraw Qubadyani spelled ''Khusrow'' (1004 - 1088 AD ( was a Persian ( Tajik) poet philosopher Anvari (1126–1189 full name Awhad ad-Din 'Ali ibn Mohammad Khavarani or Awhad ad-Din 'Ali ibn Mahmud ( was one of the greatest Persian Poets Hakim Abul-Majd Majdūd ibn Ādam Sanā'ī Ghaznavi ( was a Persian Sufi ( Tajik) Poet who lived in Ghazna, in what is now Nur ad-Din Abd ar-Rahman Jami (نورالدین عبدالرحمن جامی ( August 18, 1414 &ndash November 19, 1492) was one of the greatest Nizām al-Din ʿAlī Shīr Herawī ( Chagatai / Alisher Navoiy ( 9 February 1441 &ndash 3 January 1501) was a Central Asian
- Hanzala Badghisi, Zaheer Faryabi, Shahid Balkhi, Maroofi Balkhi, Abul-Mu'ayyed Balkhi, Abu-Shukoor Balkhi
Most of these individuals were of Persian (Tājīk) ethnicity who still form the second-largest ethnic group in Afghanistan. Tajik ( - Tādjīk; UniPers: Tâjik; Cyrillic: Тоҷик is a term generally applied to Persian-speaking people of Also, some of the contemporary Persian language poets and writers, who are relatively well-known in Persian-speaking world, include Ustad Betab, Qari Abdullah, Khalilullah Khalili,[66] Sufi Ghulam Nabi Ashqari,[67] Sarwar Joya, Qahar Asey, Parwin Pazwak and others. Khalilullah Khalili (1908–1987 - Ḫalīl Allāḥ Ḫalīlī; alternative spellings Khalilollah, Khalil Ullah) was Afghanistan 's foremost Parwin Pazwak (Born 1967 Kabul) is a Tajik artist and a modern Persian poet and writer In 2003, Khaled Hosseini published The Kiterunner which though fiction, captured much of the history, politics and culture experienced in Afghanistan from the 1930s to present day.
In addition to poets and authors, numerous Persian scientists were born or worked in the region of present-day Afghanistan. Classical (pre-modern Era The following is a non-comprehensive list of Iranian scientists and engineers that lived from antiquity up until the beginning of the modern Most notable was Avicenna (Abu Alī Hussein ibn Sīnā) whose father hailed from Balkh. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Ibn Sīnā, who travelled to Isfahan later in life to establish a medical school there, is known by some scholars as "the father of modern medicine". Esfahān or Isfahan (historically also rendered as Ispahan or Hispahan, Old Persian: Aspadana, Middle Persian: Spahān George Sarton called ibn Sīnā "the most famous scientist of Islam and one of the most famous of all races, places, and times. " His most famous works are The Book of Healing and The Canon of Medicine, also known as the Qanun. Ibn Sīnā's story even found way to the contemporary English literature through Noah Gordon's The Physician, now published in many languages. Noah Gordon (born November 11, 1926) is an American Novelist He was born in Worcester, Massachusetts. The Physician is a novel by Noah Gordon, 1986. It is about the life of an English boy of the 11th century, named Robert Jeremy Cole Moreover, according to Ibn al-Nadim, Al-Farabi, a well-known philosopher and scientist, was from the Faryab Province of Afghanistan, . Abu'l-Faraj Muhammad bin Ishaq al-Nadim ( Arabic: ابو الفرج محمد بن إسحاق النديم whose father was known as al-Warraq (Arabic الورّاق TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi
Before the Taliban gained power, the city of Kabul was home to many musicians who were masters of both traditional and modern Afghan music, especially during the Nauroz-celebration. Nowrūz ( /noruz/ ↔, (English New Day various local pronunciations and spellings) is the traditional Iranian New year Holiday celebrated Kabul in the middle part of the twentieth century has been likened to Vienna during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria.
The tribal system, which orders the life of most people outside metropolitan areas, is potent in political terms. Men feel a fierce loyalty to their own tribe, such that, if called upon, they would assemble in arms under the tribal chiefs and local clan leaders (Khans). In theory, under Islamic law, every believer has an obligation to bear arms at the ruler's call (Ulul-Amr).
Heathcote considers the tribal system to be the best way of organizing large groups of people in a country that is geographically difficult, and in a society that, from a materialistic point of view, has an uncomplicated lifestyle. [64]
Religions
Religiously, Afghans are over 99% Muslims: approximately 74-80% Sunni and 19-25% Shi'a[68][1][69] (estimates vary). A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Up until the mid-1980s, there were about 30,000 to 150,000 Hindus and Sikhs living in different cities, mostly in Jalalabad, Kabul, and Kandahar. Hinduism in Afghanistan has existed for almost as long as Hinduism itself Sikh (English or; ਸਿੱਖ sikkh, IPA) is the title and name given to an adherent of Sikhism. Jalalabad (Jalalkot ( Pashto: جلالکوټ، جلال اباد) is a city in eastern Afghanistan. } Kābul ( Persian and Pashto: کابل, IPA:) is the Capital and largest city of Afghanistan, with For the 2001 film see Kandahar (film; for the Kandahar meteorite of 1959 see Meteorite falls; for the places in Azerbaijan see Cəndəhar and [70][71]
There was a small Jewish community in Afghanistan (see Bukharan Jews) who fled the country after the 1979 Soviet invasion, and only one individual, Zablon Simintov, remains today. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Bukharan Jews, also Bukharian Jews or Bukhari Jews, ( בוכרים, Bukharim) are Jews from Central Asia who speak Zablon Simintov (b 1959, Turkmenistan) is a Jewish - Turkmen - Afghan carpet trader and the caretaker of the only synagogue in Kabul [72]
Economy
Afghanistan is a member of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC), Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO) and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC). The economy of Afghanistan has improved significantly since 2002 due to the infusion of multi-billion US dollars in international assistance and investments as well as remittances The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC) is an economic and political organization of eight countries in Southern Asia. The Economic Cooperation Organization ( ECO) is an intergovernmental International organization involving seven Asian and three European nations The economy of the Organisation of the Islamic Conference (OIC combines the economies of 57 member states It is an impoverished country, one of the world's poorest and least developed. Two-thirds of the population lives on fewer than 2 US dollars a day. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been Its economy has suffered greatly from the 1979 Soviet invasion and subsequent conflicts, while severe drought added to the nation's difficulties in 1998–2001. [73][74]
The economically active population in 2002 was about 11 million (out of a total of an estimated 29 million). As of 2005, the official unemployment rate is at 40%. [75] The number of non-skilled young people is estimated at 3 million, which is likely to increase by some 300,000 per annum. [76]
The nation's economy began to improve since 2002 due to the infusion of multi-billion US dollars in international assistance and investments, as well as remittances from expats. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been [77] It is also due to dramatic improvements in agricultural production and the end of a four-year drought in most of the country.
The real value of non-drug GDP increased by 29% in 2002, 16% in 2003, 8% in 2004 and 14% in 2005. [78] As much as one-third of Afghanistan's GDP comes from growing poppy and illicit drugs including opium and its two derivatives, morphine and heroin, as well as hashish production. Opium is a Narcotic formed from the Latex (ie sap released by lacerating (or "scoring" the immature seed pods of opium poppies ( Medical uses Morphine can be used as an analgesic in hospital settings to relieve pain in Myocardial infarction pain in Heroin ( INN: diacetylmorphine, BAN: diamorphine) is a semi-synthetic opioid synthesized from Morphine, a derivative Hashish (from Arabic: ar حشيش, lit "grass" also hash) is a preparation of cannabis composed of the compressed [1] Opium production in Afghanistan has soared to a new record in 2007, with an increase on last year of more than a third, the United Nations has said. [79] Some 3. 3 million Afghans are now involved in producing opium. [80] In a recent article in the Washington Quarterly, Peter van Ham and Jorrit Kamminga argue that the international community should establish a pilot project and investigate a licensing scheme to start the production of medicines such as morphine and codeine from poppy crops to help it escape the economic dependence on opium:[81]
According to a 2004 report by the Asian Development Bank, the present reconstruction effort is two-pronged: first it focuses on rebuilding critical physical infrastructure, and second, on building modern public sector institutions from the remnants of Soviet style planning to ones that promote market-led development. The Washington Quarterly, often abbreviated TWQ, is a journal of international affairs analyzing global strategic changes and their public policy implications published Asian Development Bank (ADB is a regional development bank established in 1966 to promote economic and social development in Asian and Pacific countries through loans and technical [76] In 2006, two US companies, Black & Veatch and the Louis Berger Group, have won a US 1. The Louis Berger Group, based in Morristown NJ, according to their website " 4 billion dollar contract to rebuild roads, power lines and water supply systems of Afghanistan. [82]
One of the main drivers for the current economic recovery is the return of over 4 million refugees from neighbouring countries and the West, who brought with them fresh energy, entrepreneurship and wealth-creating skills as well as much needed funds to start up businesses. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings What is also helping is the estimated US 2–3 billion dollars in international assistance every year, the partial recovery of the agricultural sector, and the reestablishment of market institutions. Private developments are also beginning to get underway. In 2006, a Dubai-based Afghan family opened a $25 million Coca Cola bottling plant in Afghanistan. Coca-Cola is a carbonated Soft drink sold in stores restaurants and Vending machines in more than 200 countries [83]
While the country's current account deficit is largely financed with the donor money, only a small portion – about 15% – is provided directly to the government budget. The rest is provided to non-budgetary expenditure and donor-designated projects through the United Nations system and non-governmental organizations. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The government had a central budget of only $350 million in 2003 and an estimated $550 million in 2004. The country's foreign exchange reserves totals about $500 million. Revenue is mostly generated through customs, as income and corporate tax bases are negligible.
Inflation had been a major problem until 2002. However, the depreciation of the Afghani in 2002 after the introduction of the new notes (which replaced 1,000 old Afghani by 1 new Afghani) coupled with the relative stability compared to previous periods has helped prices to stabilize and even decrease between December 2002 and February 2003, reflecting the turnaround appreciation of the new Afghani currency. Since then, the index has indicated stability, with a moderate increase toward late 2003. [76]
The Afghan government and international donors seem to remain committed to improving access to basic necessities, infrastructure development, education, housing and economic reform. The central government is also focusing on improved revenue collection and public sector expenditure discipline. The rebuilding of the financial sector seems to have been so far successful. Money can now be transferred in and out of the country via official banking channels. Since 2003, over sixteen new banks have opened in the country, including Afghanistan International Bank, Kabul Bank, Azizi Bank, Standard Chartered Bank, First Micro Finance Bank, and others. Afghanistan International Bank ( AIB) is a local commercial bank in Afghanistan, with its head office in Kabul. Kabul bank is the largest commercial bank in Afghanistan. Having started operations on 27th June 2004 the bank has become the market leader in terms of business volume number Azizi Bank is the name of a commercial Bank in Afghanistan, which has its main branch in Kabul. Standard Chartered Bank (, is a British Bank headquartered in London with operations in more than seventy countries For other banks with a similar name see First Bank. First Micro Finance Bank is a banking and loan institution of Aga Khan Agency for Microfinance A new law on private investment provides three to seven-year tax holidays to eligible companies and a four-year exemption from exports tariffs and duties. A tax holiday is a temporary reduction or elimination of a tax For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary
Some private investment projects, backed with national support, are also beginning to pick up steam in Afghanistan. An initial concept design called the City of Light Development, envisioned by Dr. Hisham N. Ashkouri, Principal of ARCADD, Inc. Hisham N Ashkouri (born August 15, 1948, Baghdad, Iraq) is a Boston and New York -based Architect. for the development and the implementation of a privately based investment enterprise has been proposed for multi-function commercial, historic and cultural development within the limits of the Old City of Kabul along the Southern side of the Kabul River and along Jade Meywand Avenue,[84] revitalizing some of the most commercial and historic districts in the City of Kabul, which contains numerous historic mosques and shrines as well as viable commercial activities among war damaged buildings. Also incorporated in the design is a new complex for the Afghan National Museum. Kabul Museum is the national museum of Afghanistan. It is a two-story building located in the historic city of Kabul and was built
According to the US Geological Survey and the Afghan Ministry of Mines and Industry, Afghanistan may be possessing up to 36 trillion cubic feet (1,000 km³) of natural gas, 3. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, 6 billion barrels (570,000,000 m³) of petroleum and up to 1,325 million barrels (210,700,000 m³) of natural gas liquids. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Natural gas processing plants or fractionators are used to purify the raw Natural gas extracted from underground gas fields and brought up to the surface by This could mark the turning point in Afghanistan’s reconstruction efforts. Energy exports could generate the revenue that Afghan officials need to modernize the country’s infrastructure and expand economic opportunities for the beleaguered and fractious population. [29] Other reports show that the country has huge amounts of gold, copper, coal, iron ore and other minerals. Iron ores are rocks and Minerals from which Metallic Iron can be economically extracted A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific [26][30][85] The government of Afghanistan is in the process of extracting and exporting its copper reserves, which will be earning $1. 2 billion US dollars in royalties and taxes every year for the next 30 years. Royalties (sometimes running royalties) are usage-based payments made by one party (the "licensee" to another (the "licensor" for ongoing use of an It will also provide permanent labor to 3,000 of its citizens. [86]
- See also: Opium Production in Afghanistan
Infrastructure
Transport
Ariana Afghan Airlines is the national airlines carrier, with domestic flights between Kabul, Kandahar, Heart and Mazar-e Sharif. Landlocked Afghanistan has almost no railways but the Amu Darya (Oxus River which forms part of Afghanistan's border with Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Ariana Afghan Airlines Co Ltd is the national Airline carrier of Afghanistan, based in Kabul. International flights include to Dubai, Frankfurt, Istanbul and a number of other destinations. Dubai (in دبيّ,) is one of the seven emirates and most populous city of the United Arab Emirates (UAE Istanbul (historically Byzantium and later Constantinople; see the other Names of Istanbul) is the largest city of Turkey There are also limited domestic and international flight services available from Kam Air, Pamir Airways and Safi Airlines. Kam Air is an Airline based in Kabul, Afghanistan. It operates scheduled domestic passenger services and international services to Europe Pamir Airways is an Airline based in Kabul, Afghanistan. History The company is named after the Pamirs a mountainous region
The country has limited rail service with Turkmenistan. There are two railway projects currently in progress, one is between Heart and the Iranian city Mashad while another is between Kandahar and Quetta in Pakistan. "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Mashhad ( literally the place of martyrdom) is the second largest city in Iran and one of the holiest cities in the Shia ( Urdu: کوئٹہ) ( Pashto: کوټه) also spelled Kwatah City is a variation of kwatkot a Pashto word meaning “fort Most people who travel from one city to another use bus services. Automobiles have recently become more widely available, with Toyota, Nissan and Hyundai dealerships in Kabul. (pronounced) is a Multinational corporation headquartered in Japan, and is currently the world's largest Automaker. Hyundai refers to a group of companies and related organizations founded by Chung Ju-yung in South Korea. A large number of second-hand vehicles are also arriving from the UAE. Nearly all highways and roads are being rebuilt in the country.
Communications and technology
Telecommunication services in the country are provided by Afghan Wireless, Etisalat, Roshan, Areeba and Afghan Telecom. Communications in Afghanistan has dramatically increased since 2002 and has embarked on wireless companies internet radio stations and television channels Afghan Wireless is the name of a cellcular service provider in Afghanistan. Etisalat is one of the largest Telecommunications companies in the world and the largest operator in the Arab world headquartered in the UAE (as per FT500 Afghan Telecom is a Telecom company offering fixed line wireless voice and data services under a 25 year license in Afghanistan. In 2006, the Afghan Ministry of Communications signed a US$64. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 5 million agreement with ZTE Corporation for the establishment of a countrywide fibre optic cable network. ZTE (Chinese：中兴通讯 ( Z hong Xing T elecommunication E quipment Company Limited is a global provider of telecommunications equipment and network This will improve telephone, internet, television and radio broadcast services throughout the country. [88]
Television and radio broadcastings are available in most parts of the country, with local and international channels or stations.
The nation's post service is also operating. Package delivery services such as FedEx, DHL and others are also available. FedEx Corporation ( is a Logistics services company based in the United States. DHL (originally standing for Dalsey Hillblom and Lynn) is a Deutsche Post World Net company of Germany that provides international mail
Education
As of 2006 more than four million male and female students were enrolled in schools throughout the country. However, there are still significant obstacles to education in Afghanistan, stemming from lack of funding, unsafe school buildings and cultural norms. A lack of women teachers is an issue that concerns some Afghan parents, especially in more conservative areas. Some parents will not allow their daughters to be taught by men. [89]
Literacy of the entire population is estimated (as of 1999) at 36%, the male literacy rate is 51% and female literacy is 21%. Up to now there are 9,500 schools in the country.
Another aspect of education that is rapidly changing in Afghanistan is the face of higher education. Higher education is Education that is provided by universities, vocational universities, Community colleges Liberal arts colleges Following the fall of the Taliban, Kabul University was reopened to both male and female students. Kabul University ( - Dāneshgāh-e Kābul; Pashto: دکابل پوهنتون In 2006, the American University of Afghanistan also opened its doors, with the aim of providing a world-class, English-language, co-educational learning environment in Afghanistan. The American University of Afghanistan ( ( AUAF) located in Kabul, Afghanistan, is the nation’s first private not-for-profit institution of higher The university accepts students from Afghanistan and the neighboring countries. Construction work will soon start at the new site selected for University of Balkh in Mazari Sharif. Balkh University ( دانشگاه بلخ) is located in Mazari Sharif, capital of Balkh province, in northern Afghanistan. The new building for the university, including the building for the Engineering Department, would be constructed at 600 acres (2. 4 km²) of land at the cost of 250 million US dollars. [90]
See also
- Afghan Morphine
- CIA activities in the Near East, North Africa, South and Southwest Asia#Afghanistan
- CIA transnational anti-crime and anti-drug activities#Southwest Asia
- Civil war in Afghanistan
- Crime in Afghanistan
- Economy of Afghanistan
- Foreign relations of Afghanistan
- Health in Afghanistan
- Human rights in Afghanistan
- Inter-Services Intelligence#Afghanistan
- Opium production in Afghanistan
- Soviet war in Afghanistan
- United States-Afghanistan relations
- United States Ambassador to Afghanistan
- War in Afghanistan (disambiguation)
- War in Afghanistan (2001–present)
- Cuisine of Afghanistan
References and footnotes
- ^ a b c d e f g h Afghanistan. Afghan morphine or "Poppy for Medicine" is an alternative development solution put forward to combat the poverty and public disenchantment caused by international counter-narcotics See also Central Intelligence Agency This article deals with activities of the U See also Central Intelligence Agency This article deals with activities of the U The Civil war in Afghanistan, also known as Afghan Civil War, began in 1978 and has continued Crime in Afghanistan is present in various forms Forms of crime include Drug trafficking, Money laundering, Fraud, corruption The economy of Afghanistan has improved significantly since 2002 due to the infusion of multi-billion US dollars in international assistance and investments as well as remittances The foreign relations of Afghanistan, like those of any country have changed along with the political sociological and economic state of the various parts of Afghanistan Beginning in 1979 military conflict destroyed the Health system of Afghanistan. The situation of Human Rights in Afghanistan is a topic of some controversy and conflict History After independence in 1947 two new intelligence agencies were created in Pakistan called the Intelligence Bureau (IB and Military Intelligence Afghanistan is as of March 2008 the greatest illicit (in Western World standards Opium producer in the world before Burma ( Myanmar) part of the so-called " The Soviet war in Afghanistan, also known as the Soviet-Afghan War or just the Soviet Invasion of Afghanistan, was a nine-year conflict involving This is a list of United States Ambassadors to Afghanistan. Prior to 1948 Afghanistan was not considered important enough to have a full ambassador so a Minister The War in Afghanistan, which began on October 7 2001 as the U Afghanistan has a wide varying landscape allowing for many different crops The World Factbook. The World Factbook ( ISSN; also known as the CIA World Factbook) is an annual publication of the Central Intelligence Agency of the Central Intelligence Agency (December 13, 2007). near as long as it used to be several months ago It has been actively summarized and split into sub-articles and there is a dynamic talk page discussion of all
- ^ Other terms that can be used as demonyms are Afghani and Afghanistani:
- afghani. Dictionary. com. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( AHD) is an American Dictionary of the English language published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghani (accessed: November 13, 2007)
- afghanistani. Dictionary. com. WordNet® 3.0. WordNet is a Semantic lexicon for the English language. It groups English words into sets of synonyms called Synsets, provides short general Princeton University. Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey. http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/afghanistani (accessed: November 13, 2007).
- ^ "Afghanistan", CIA - The World Factbook 2007
- ^ The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language ( AHD) is an American Dictionary of the English language published by Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004.
- ^ The 2007 Middle East & Central Asia Politics, Economics,and Society Conference University of Utah
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- ^ CIA world factbook, Afghanistan - Geography (Location: Southern Asia)
- ^ University of California, [1], University of Pennsylvania, World Bank; US maps; [2] ; University of Washington Syracuse University
- ^ Middle East Network Information Center (MENIC), University of Texas at Austin
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- ^ a b Ahmad Shah Durrani, Britannica Concise. Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 250 - Emperor Decius begins a widespread persecution of Christians in Rome.
- ^ The Decline of the Pashtuns in Afghanistan, Anwar-ul-Haq Ahady, Asian Survey, Vol. 35, No. 7. (Jul. , 1995), pp. 621-634.
- ^ Encyclopedia Britannica, Afghanistan History, Online Edition LINK
- ^ Morgenstierne, G. (1999). "AFGHĀN". Encyclopaedia of Islam (CD-ROM Edition v. The Encyclopaedia of Islam ( EI) is the standard Encyclopaedia of the Academic discipline of Islamic studies. 1. 0). Leiden, The Netherlands: Koninklijke Brill NV.
- ^ Nancy Hatch Dupree - The Story of Kabul (Mongols)
- ^ "Afghan" (with ref. to "Afghanistan: iv. Ethnography") by Ch. M. Kieffer, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006. Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and
- ^ "Transactions of the year 908" by Zāhir ud-Dīn Mohammad Bābur in Bāburnāma, translated by John Leyden, Oxford University Press: 1921.
- ^ Elphinstone, M., "Account of the Kingdom of Cabul and its Dependencies in Persia and India", London 1815; published by Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme & Brown
- ^ E. Mountstuart Elphinstone ( October 6, 1779 &ndash November 20, 1859) was a Scottish Statesman and Historian, London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Bowen, "A New & Accurate Map of Persia" in A Complete System Of Geography, Printed for W. Innys, R. Ware [etc. ], London 1747
- ^ E. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom. Huntington, "The Anglo-Russian Agreement as to Tibet, Afghanistan, and Persia", Bulletin of the American Geographical Society, Vol. 39, No. 11 (1907)
- ^ a b MECW Volume 18, p. 40; The New American Cyclopaedia - Vol. I, 1858
- ^ M. Ali, "Afghanistan: The War of Independence, 1919", Kabul [s. n. ], 1960
- ^ Afghanistan's Constitution of 1923 under King Amanullah Khan (English translation). Amanullah Khan (June 1 1892 &ndash April 25 1960 was the ruler of Afghanistan from 1919 to 1929 first as Amir and after 1926 as Shah.
- ^ History of Environmental Change in the Sistan Basin 1976 - 2005. Retrieved on 2007-07-20. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1304 - Wars of Scottish Independence: Fall of Stirling Castle - King Edward I of England takes the last rebel stronghold
- ^ a b Gold and copper discovered in Afghanistan
- ^ Uranium Mining Issues: 2005 Review
- ^ 16 detained for smuggling chromites, Pajhwok Afghan News.
- ^ a b Afghanistan’s Energy Future and its Potential Implications, Eurasianet. org.
- ^ a b Govt plans to lease out Ainak copper mine, Pajhwok Afghan News.
- ^ Sites in Perspective, chapter 3 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.
- ^ Afghanistan, Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2006 (specifically John Ford Shroder, B. S. , M. S. , Ph. D. Regents Professor of Geography and Geology, University of Nebraska. Editor, Himalaya to the Sea: Geology, Geomorphology, and the Quaternary and other books).
- ^ It is unlikely because of the migration significantly north of the Caspian. Bryant, Edwin F. (2001) The quest for the origins of Vedic culture: the Indo-Aryan migration debate Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, ISBN 0-19-513777-9
- ^ Lal, B. B. and Saraswat, K. S. (2005) The homeland of the Aryans : evidence of Ṛigvedic flora and fauna & archaeology Aryan Books International, New Delhi, ISBN 81-7305-283-2
- ^ Sethna, Kaikhushru Dhunjibhoy (1992) The Problem of Aryan Origins Aditya Prakashan, New Delhi, ISBN 81-85179-67-0
- ^ The history of Afghanistan, Ghandara.com website
- ^ Afghanistan: Achaemenid dynasty rule, Ancient Classical History, about.com
- ^ Dani, A. H. and B. A. Litvinsky. "The Kushano-Sasanian Kingdom. " In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A. D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A. , ed. , 1996. Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 103–118. ISBN 92-3-103211-9
- ^ Zeimal, E. V. "The Kidarite Kingdom in Central Asia. " In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A. D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A. , ed. , 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 119–133. ISBN 92-3-103211-9
- ^ Litvinsky, B. A. "The Hephthalite Empire. " In: History of civilizations of Central Asia, Volume III. The crossroads of civilizations: A. D. 250 to 750. Litvinsky, B. A. , ed. , 1996, Paris: UNESCO Publishing, pp. 135–162. ISBN 92-3-103211-9
- ^ Ali Akbar Dehkhoda, Dehkhoda Dictionary, p. Dehkhoda Dictionary ( is the largest comprehensive Persian Dictionary ever published in 15 volumes (26000 pages 8457
- ^ Ghubar, Mir Ghulam Mohammad, Khorasan, 1937 Kabul Printing House, Kabul)
- ^ "Tajikistan Development Gateway" from History of Afghanistan by the Development Gateway Foundation
- ^ "Ghaznavid Dynasty", Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.
- ^ "Timurid Dynasty", Encyclopaedia Britannica Online Edition.
- ^ "Ašraf Ghilzai" by Prof. D. Balland, Encyclopaedia Iranica Online Edition 2006.
- ^ "The Hotakis" in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ a b "The Durranti dynasty" in "Afghanistan", Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ "Ahmad Shah Durrani", Encyclopaedia Britannica.
- ^ The South, chapter 16 of Nancy Hatch Dupree, An Historical Guide To Afghanistan.
- ^ Hanifi, M. Jamil "GHILZĪ or GHALZĪ". Encyclopædia Iranica (Online Edition). Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and United States: Columbia University. Columbia University is a private University in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Retrieved on January 2008.
- ^ Prashad, Vijay (2001-09-15). Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. War Against the Planet. ZMag. Z Communications is a media group founded in 1987 by Michael Albert and Lydia Sargent. Retrieved on 2008-03-21. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 630 - Byzantine emperor Heraclius restores the True Cross to Jerusalem.
- ^ The CIA's Intervention in Afghanistan (Interview with Zbigniew Brzezinski). Le Nouvel Observateur (1998-01-21). Le Nouvel Observateur (often shorten to Le Nouvel Obs) is a weekly French Newsmagazine. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) Events 1189 - Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade. Retrieved on 2008-03-15. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus,
- ^ "Afghanistan: History", Columbia Encyclopedia.
- ^ http://physiciansforhumanrights.org/library/documents/reports/talibans-war-on-women.pdf
- ^ Erik Eckholm. "A NATION CHALLENGED: PENALTIES; Taliban Justice: Stadium Was Scene of Gory Punishment", The New York Times, 2001-12-26. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. Retrieved on 2008-05-19. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1535 - French explorer Jacques Cartier sets sail on his second voyage to North America with three ships 110 men and
- ^ Afghanistan, Opium and the Taliban [3]
- ^ [4] - New Supreme Court Could Mark Genuine Departure - August 13, 2006
- ^ Text used in this cited section originally came from: Afghanistan (Feb 2005) profile from the Library of Congress Country Studies project. Events 3114 BC - According to the Lounsbury correlation the start of the Maya calendar. The Country Studies are works published by the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress ( USA) freely available for use by researchers
- ^ CIA World Factbook. Retrieved on 2008-06-05. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 70 - Titus and his Roman Legions breach the middle wall of Jerusalem in the Siege of Jerusalem
- ^ a b Dupree, L. "Afghānistān: (iv.) ethnocgraphy". Encyclopædia Iranica (Online Edition). Encyclopædia Iranica is a project whose goal is to create a comprehensive and authoritative English language Encyclopedia about the history culture and Ed. Ehsan Yarshater. Ehsan Yarshater ( born April 3, 1920, Hamadan, Iran) is the director of The Center for Iranian Studies and Hagop Kevorkian Professor Emeritus United States: Columbia University. Columbia University is a private University in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Retrieved on 2007.
- ^ BBC News - Afghan poll's ethnic battleground - October 6, 2004
- ^ "Afghānistān: (v.) languages" by L. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Dupree, Encyclopædia Iranica Online Edition 2006.
- ^ a b Heathcote, Tony (1980, 2003) "The Afghan Wars 1839–1919", Sellmount Staplehurst
- ^ "Modern literature of Afghanistan" by R. Farhādī, Encyclopaedia Iranica, xii, Online Edition.
- ^ Afghanmagazine.com - Ustad Khalilullah Khalili - 1997
- ^ Afghanmagazine.com - Kharaabat - by Yousef Kohzad - 2000
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica - Afghanistan. . . Link (PDF)
- ^ Goring, R. (ed): "Larousse Dictionary of Beliefs & Religions" (Larousse: 1994), pg. 581–58, Table: "Population Distribution of Major Beliefs", ISBN 0-7523-0000-8, Note: ". . . Figures have been compiled from the most accurate recent available information and are in most cases correct to the nearest 1% . . . "
- ^ Hinduism Today: Hindus Abandon Afghanistan
- ^ BBC South Asia: Sikhs struggle in Afghanistan
- ^ Washingtonpost.com - Afghan Jew Becomes Country's One and Only - N.C. Aizenman
- ^ Morales, Victor (2005-03-28). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Poor Afghanistan. Voice of America. Retrieved on 2006-09-10. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde.
- ^ North, Andrew (2004-03-30). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 240 BC - 1st recorded Perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. Why Afghanistan wants $27.6bn. BBC News. Retrieved on 2006-09-10. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde.
- ^ CIA - The World Factbook - Afghanistan
- ^ a b c Fujimura, Manabu (2004) "Afghan Economy After the Election", Asian Development Bank Institute
- ^ Pajhwok Afghan News, Afghanistan receives $3.3b remittances from expats, Oct. 19, 2007.
- ^ Macroeconomics & Economic Growth in South Asia, The World Bank.
- ^ Afghan opium production at record high
- ^ UN horrified by surge in opium trade in Helmand
- ^ Poppies for Peace: Reforming Afghanistan’s Opium Industry
- ^ "Midday Business Report: Black & Veatch unit gains piece of Afghan contract", The Kansas City Star.
- ^ "Coca-Cola opens plant in Afghanistan", Contra Costa Times.
- ^ Kabul - City of Light Project
- ^ Pajhwok Afghan News, Afghanistan has huge mineral resources: survey, Nov. 14, 2007.
- ^ Pajhwok Afghan News, Chinese company wins bidding for Ainak copper extraction, Nov. 20, 2007.
- ^ http://kabul.usembassy.gov/pr082607.html
- ^ Ministry signs contract with Chinese company, Pajhwok Afghan News.
- ^ Mojumdar, Aunohita: "Afghan Schools' Money Problems", BBC News, 2007. [5]
- ^ Pakistan grants $10m for Balkh University, Pajhwok Afghan News.
Bibliography
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External links
Official government sites
- Islamic Republic of Afghanistan: Office of the President
- Law in Afghanistan
- Afghanistan Customs Department
- Afghanistan National Development Strategy (ANDS)
- Afghanistan Investment Support Agency (AISA)
General information
- Afghanistan entry at The World Factbook
- Afghanistan in Brief (Embassy of Afghanistan)
- BBC News Country Profile - Afghanistan
- CDC Health Information for Afghanistan
- Afghanistan's Paper Money
- World Intellectual Property Handbook: Afghanistan
- Afghanistan travel guide from Wikitravel
Culture and news
- Pajhwok Afghan News
- RAWA News: The Reality of Life in Afghanistan
- KabulPress.org
- Islamic Republic Of Afghanistan (Cultural issues)
- Afghanistan Cultural Profile - Afghanistan national cultural portal
- Afghan Online Press
- News, Information, Pictures from Afghanistan
- Afghanistan Online
- Bakhtar News Agency (Official Afghan Agency)
- Afghan History and Entertainment Portal
Other
- Picture galleries from Kabul and Afghanistan
- Old photos of Afghanistan
- How Hemp could save Afghanistan
- The geopolitics of Afghani Hash
- Return to Afghanistan - Short films by the Washington Post on the New Afghanistan
- British Royal College for Defense Studies analyses and proposes a war in August 2001
- Afghanistan: The Genesis of the Final Crusade, an insider's perspective of the war on Afghanistan
- The Afghanistan Directory
- A Look at the Languages Spoken in Afghanistan
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