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Boom and receptacle: USAF KC-135R Stratotanker, two F-15s (twin fins) and two F-16s, on an aerial refueling training mission
Boom and receptacle: USAF KC-135R Stratotanker, two F-15s (twin fins) and two F-16s, on an aerial refueling training mission
Probe and drogue: IAF Il-76 MD refueling two Mirage 2000 fighter jets
Probe and drogue: IAF Il-76 MD refueling two Mirage 2000 fighter jets
Probe and drogue: USAF HC-130P HIFRs a HH-60 Pave Hawk
Probe and drogue: USAF HC-130P HIFRs a HH-60 Pave Hawk

Aerial refueling, also called air refueling, in-flight refueling (IFR), air-to-air refueling (AAR) or (in air force slang) tanking, is the process of transferring fuel from one aircraft (the tanker) to another (the receiver) during flight. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Indian Air Force (Devanāgarī भारतीय वायु सेना IAST Bhartiya Vāyu Senā is the air arm of the Armed Forces of India and has the WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The HC-130 is an extended-range Combat Search and rescue version of the C-130 Hercules transport WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy Applied to helicopters, it is known as HIFR ("hi fur"). History Since 400 AD Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. [1] The procedure allows the receiving aircraft to remain airborne longer and, more important, to extend its range and therefore those of its weapons or its deployment radius. A series of air refuelings can give range limited only by crew fatigue and engineering factors such as engine oil consumption.

Because the receiver aircraft can be topped up with extra fuel in the air, air refueling can allow a take-off with a greater payload which could be weapons, cargo or personnel: the maximum take-off weight is maintained by balancing the larger payload with carriage of less fuel. Takeoff is the phase of Flight in which an Aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground ( Taxiing) to flying in the air usually In military aircraft or space exploration the payload is the carrying capacity of an aircraft or space ship including as Cargo, Munitions scientific instruments Alternatively, a shorter take-off roll can be achieved because take-off can be at a lighter weight before refueling once airborne (as with the US SR-71 Blackbird reconnaissance aircraft). WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Usually, the aircraft providing the fuel is specially designed for the task, although refueling pods can be fitted to existing aircraft designs if the "probe and drogue" system is to be used (see later). The cost of the refueling equipment on both tanker and receiver aircraft and the specialized aircraft handling of the aircraft to be refueled (very close "line astern" formation flying) has resulted in the activity only being used in military operations. There is no known regular civilian in-flight refueling activity. In large-scale military operations, air refueling is extensively used. For instance, in the 1991 conflict with Iraq over its invasion of Kuwait and the 2003 war against Iraq, all coalition air sorties were air-refueled except for a few short-range ground attack sorties in the Kuwait area. The Invasion of Kuwait, also known as the Iraq-Kuwait War, was a major conflict between the Republic of Iraq and the State of Kuwait which resulted The Iraq War, also known as the Second Gulf War, the Occupation of Iraq, or the War in Iraq, is an ongoing Military campaign

Contents

History and development

Pioneer experiments

Capt. Lowell H. Smith and Lt. John P. Richter receiving the first mid-air refueling on June 27, 1923, from a plane flown by 1st Lt. Virgil Hine and 1st Lt. Frank W. Seifert.
Capt. Lowell H. Smith and Lt. John P. Lowell H Smith (1892— November 4 1945) was a pioneer American airman who piloted the first airplane to receive a complete mid- Air refueling Lieutenant (abbreviated Lt or Lieut) is a Military, Naval, Paramilitary, Fire service, Emergency medical services Richter receiving the first mid-air refueling on June 27, 1923, from a plane flown by 1st Lt. Virgil Hine and 1st Lt. Frank W. Seifert.

Some of the earliest experiments in aerial refueling took place in the 1920s, when it was as simple as two slow-flying aircraft flying in formation, with a hose run down from a hand-held fuel tank on one aircraft and placed into the usual fuel filler of the other. The first mid-air refueling between two planes occurred June 27, 1923, between two Airco DH-4B biplanes of the United States Army Air Service. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout A biplane is a Fixed-wing aircraft with two main Wings The first powered heavier-than-air Aircraft, the Wright brothers' Wright Flyer The United States Army Air Service was a forerunner of the United States Air Force. An endurance record was set by three DH-4Bs (a receiver and two tankers) on August 27-28, 1923, in which the receiver airplane remained aloft for more than 37 hours using nine mid-air refuelings to transfer 687 gallons of aviation gasoline and 38 gallons of engine oil. Events 479 BC - Greco-Persian Wars: Persian forces led by Mardonius are routed by Pausanias, the Spartan Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Avgas is a high-octane Aviation fuel used for Aircraft and Racing cars Avgas is a Portmanteau for aviation gasoline The same crews demonstrated the utility of the technique on October 25, 1923, when a DH-4 flew from Sumas, Washington, on the Canadian border to Tijuana, Mexico, landing in San Diego, using mid-air refuelings at Eugene, Oregon, and Sacramento, California. Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a Year 1923 ( MCMXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This article is for the city in Washington state For the former municipality in British Columbia and other uses see Sumas (disambiguation. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Tijuana (ˌtiːəˈwɑːnə Spanish, ti'xwana|ti'ʍana is the largest city of the Mexican state of Baja California, situated on the U The city of Eugene ( "yoo-JEEN") is the County seat of Lane County, Oregon,

In 1929, a group of U. S. Army Air Corps fliers, led by then Major Carl Spaatz, set an endurance record of over 150 hours with the Question Mark over Los Angeles. The United States Army Air Corps (USAAC was the predecessor of the U Carl Andrew "Tooey" Spaatz GBE (June 28 1891 &ndash July 14 1974 was an American general in World War II, and the first Chief of Question Mark was a modified Atlantic-Fokker C-2A airplane modified and flown by aviators from the United States Army Air Corps to experiment Between June 11 and July 4, 1930, the brothers John, Kenneth, Albert, and Walter Hunter set a new record of 553 hours 40 minutes over Chicago using two Stinson SM-1 Detroiters as refueler and receiver. Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes. Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Stinson Aircraft Company was an Aircraft Manufacturing company in the United States between the 1920s and the 1950s Aerial refueling remained a very dangerous process until 1935 when brothers Fred and Al Key demonstrated the first spill-free refueling nozzle, designed by A. Brothers Fred and Al Key became interested in aviation after WWI D. Hunter. [2] They exceeded the Hunters' record by nearly 100 hours in a Curtiss Robin monoplane, staying aloft for more than 27 days. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout [3]

A F-101A Voodoo (top right), B-66 Destroyer (top left) and F-100D Super Sabre refuel from a KB-50J tanker in the early 1960s
A F-101A Voodoo (top right), B-66 Destroyer (top left) and F-100D Super Sabre refuel from a KB-50J tanker in the early 1960s

In the UK, Alan Cobham bought the patent from David Nicolson and John Lord for £480 each and then pioneered research on the probe and drogue method, and gave public demonstrations of the system. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Sir Alan John Cobham, KBE, AFC (6 May 1894- 21 October 1973 was an English aviation pioneer In 1934, he founded Flight Refuelling Ltd. Cobham plc ( is a British manufacturing company based in Wimborne Minster, Dorset, England. (FRL), and by 1938 had used an automatic system to refuel aircraft as large as the Short Empire flying boat Cambria from an Armstrong Whitworth AW.23. The Short Empire was a passenger and mail carrying Flying boat, of the 1930s and 1940s which flew between Britain and British colonies in Africa, The Armstrong Whitworth AW23 was a prototype Bomber /transport Aircraft produced to specification C [3] Handley Page Harrows were used to refuel the Empire flying boats for regular transatlantic crossings. FRL still exists as part of Cobham plc. Cobham plc ( is a British manufacturing company based in Wimborne Minster, Dorset, England.

Modern specialized tanker aircraft have equipment specially designed for the task of offloading fuel to the receiver aircraft, based on Hunter's design, even at the higher speeds modern jet aircraft typically need to remain airborne. Aerial refueling, also called air refueling, in-flight refueling ( IFR) air-to-air refueling ( AAR) or tanking, is A jet aircraft is an Aircraft propelled by Jet engines Jet aircraft fly much faster than Propeller -powered aircraft and at higher altitudes -- as high as

Operational air refueling

In January 1948, General Carl Spaatz made aerial refueling a top priority of the new United States Air Force. In March 1948 USAF purchased two sets of Cobham's refueling equipment, which had been in practical use with BOAC since 1946, and manufacturing rights to the system. The British Overseas Airways Corporation ( BOAC) was the British state airline from 1939 until 1946 and the long-haul British state airline from 1946 FRL also provided a year of technical assistance. The sets were immediately installed in two B-29 Superfortresses, with plans to equip 80 B-29s.

Flight testing began in May 1948 at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, and was so successful that in June orders went out to equip all new B-50's and subsequent bombers with receiving equipment. Wright-Patterson Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located in Greene and Montgomery counties eight miles (13 km) northeast of Ohio ( is a Midwestern state of the United States. As part of the Great Lakes region, Ohio has long been a cultural and geographical crossroads Two dedicated Air Refueling units were formed on June 30, 1948: the 43rd ARS at Davis-Monthan Air Force Base, Arizona, and the 509th ARS at Walker Air Force Base, New Mexico. Davis-Monthan Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base adjacent to Tucson, Arizona. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. Walker Air Force Base was the largest Strategic Air Command base of the United States Air Force at the time of its closure in 1967 New Mexico ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States of America. The first ARS aircraft used a hose refueling system, but testing with a boom system followed quickly in the autumn of 1948.

In 1949 from February 26 to March 3 an American B-50 Superfortress Lucky Lady II of the 43rd Bomb Wing flew non-stop around the World in 94 hours, 1 min. Events 747 BC - Epoch (origin of Ptolemy 's Nabonassar Era 364 - Valentinian I is proclaimed Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout , a feat made possible by 3 aerial refuelings from 4 pairs of KB-29M tankers of the 43rd ARS. See also B-29 Superfortress WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended Before the mission, crews of the 43rd had experienced only a single operational air refueling contact. The flight started and ended at Carswell Air Force Base in Fort Worth, Texas with the refuelings accomplished over West Africa, the Pacific ocean near Guam and between Hawaii and the West Coast. For uses after 30 September 1994, see Naval Air Station Joint Reserve Base Fort Worth Carswell Air Force Base, (1942 - 1994 is Fort Worth is the fifth-largest city in the state of Texas and the seventeenth-largest city in the United States. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. Guam ( Chamorro: cha Guåhån) officially the Territory of Guam, is an island in the western Pacific Ocean and is an organized unincorporated The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the The " West Coast " " Western Seaboard " or " Pacific Seaboard " are terms for the westernmost coastal states of the Western United States

This first non-stop circumnavigation of the globe proved that, because of aerial refueling, vast distances and geographical barriers were no longer an obstacle to military air power. In 1949 four additional ARS units were organized by the USAF and both the 43rd and 509th ARS became fully operational.

The first use of aerial refueling in combat took place during the Korean War.

Aerial refueling systems

The two most common approaches for making the union between the two aircraft are the boom and receptacle system (sometimes called flying boom) and the probe and drogue system. There is also a combination “boom drogue adaptor” that combines the first two methods. Much less popular was the wing-to-wing system, which is no longer used.

Boom and receptacle (The Boeing "Flying Boom")

USAF C-5 approaches a KC-135R
USAF C-5 approaches a KC-135R
USAF AWACS approaches a KC-135R
USAF AWACS approaches a KC-135R

The “flying boom” is a rigid, telescoping tube that an operator on the tanker aircraft extends and inserts into a receptacle on the receiving aircraft. The Boeing Company is a major Aerospace and defense corporation originally founded by William E WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout All boom-equipped tankers (i. e. KC-135, KC-10), have a single boom, and can refuel one aircraft at a time with this mechanism.

History of Flying Boom

In the late 1940s, General Curtis LeMay, commander of the Strategic Air Command (SAC), asked Boeing to develop a refueling system that could transfer fuel at a higher rate than had been possible with earlier systems using flexible hoses. Curtis Emerson LeMay (15 November 1906–3 October 1990 was a General in the United States Air Force and the vice presidential running mate of American Independent The Strategic Air Command (SAC was both a major command and a "specified command" in the U Boeing engineers came up with the concept of the “Flying Boom” system. The B-29 was the first to employ the flying boom system, and between 1950 and 1951, 116 original B-29s, designated KB-29Ps, were converted at the Boeing plant at Renton, Washington State. Boeing went on to develop the world’s first production aerial tanker, the KC-97 Stratotanker, a piston-engined Boeing Stratocruiser (USAF designation C-97 StratoFreighter) with a Boeing-developed flying boom and extra kerosene (jet fuel) tanks feeding the boom. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Stratocruiser airliner itself was developed from the B-29 bomber after World War II. In the KC-97, the mixed gasoline/kerosene fuel system was clearly not desirable and it was obvious that a jet-powered tanker aircraft would be the next development, having a single type of fuel for both its own engines and for passing to receiver aircraft. It was no surprise that, after the KC-97, Boeing began receiving contracts from the USAF to build jet tankers based on the Boeing 367-80 (Dash-80) airframe. The result was the Boeing Model 717, Military designation KC-135, of which 732 were built.

Flying Boom Operation

The flying boom is attached to the rear of the tanker aircraft. The attachment is flexible allowing boom movement up to 25 degrees left or right, and from flush with the bottom of the aircraft up to 50 degrees down. Mounted within the outer structural portion of the boom is a rigid tube through which the fuel passes. The tip end of the fuel tube has a nozzle attached on a flexible ball joint. The nozzle mates to the "receptacle" in the receiver aircraft during fuel transfer. A poppet valve in the end of the nozzle prevents fuel from exiting the tube until "contact" is properly made between the nozzle and receptacle. A poppet valve is a Valve consisting of a hole usually round or oval and a tapered plug usually a disk shape on the end of a shaft also called a valve stem Toggles in the receptacle engage the nozzle, holding it locked during contact. Mounted on the hollow shaft surrounding the fuel tube are small wings, or ruddevators (visible in the picture, in a "V" shape), or alternatively, a four-surface arrangement closely resembling the tail surfaces of the late World War II Heinkel He 162 jet fighter, allowing aerodynamic control of the boom. WING "ESPN 1410" is a commercial AM radio station in Dayton Ohio operating with 5000 watts at 1410 kHz with studios offices and transmitter located on David The Heinkel He 162 Volksjäger ("People's Fighter" named after the Volkssturm) was a German single engined jet powered Fighter aircraft The fuel tube extends and retracts hydraulically; it also "freewheels" in and out in response to the receiver's fore and aft movement during contact. For the mechanical technology see Hydraulic machinery and Hydraulic cylinder Hydraulics is a topic of science and Engineering The receiver's receptacle is typically fitted on the aircraft's centerline, but design considerations may require other locations.

To complete an aerial refueling, the receiver aircraft's pilot begins by flying formation directly below and approximately 50 feet (15 m) behind the boom. When cleared, the receiver aircraft moves forward to the contact position aided with either voice commands (using radio) or visual commands (using lights on the bottom of the tanker) from the crew member operating the boom, called a "boom operator" or "boomer" -- an enlisted crew member in the USAF. In the USAF the position of boom operator is a position held by an Enlisted Aviator, (rank Airman Basic through Chief Master Sergeant On KC-135 tanker aircraft the boomer lies prone on a couch or pallet; on the KC-10 the boomer sits. On either tanker, the boomer's position is in the back of the aircraft facing aft. Once the receiver aircraft reaches the contact position its pilot attempts to hold in place with as little relative motion between the two aircraft as possible. Using the ruddevator control stick and the extension/retraction lever, the boomer precisely positions the boom's nozzle into the receiver's receptacle. Following toggle engagement (locking the boom in place) pumps operated by the tanker's pilot force fuel through the boom into the receiver. For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump.

USAF KC-135R boom operator view
USAF KC-135R boom operator view

While in contact, pilot director indicators (two rows of lights on the bottom of the tanker's fuselage change in relation to the nozzle's up/down and fore/aft movement) aid the receiver pilot in remaining within the air refueling envelope. The fuselage (from the French fuselé "spindle-shaped" is an Aircraft 's main body section that holds crew and passengers or Cargo The air refueling envelope -- a roughly cube-shaped area within which the nozzle and receptacle must remain during contact -- is slightly different for each receiver. Its boundaries are based either on boom movement limitations, or to prevent the receiver from moving into a position where any portion of the boom might touch the receiver outside the receptacle while in contact. The boom's mechanical limits stem from the both the structural limitations of yoke and trunnion system mounting the boom to the tanker, and the maximum deflection of the flexible nozzle. Should receiver movement left, right, up or down exceed the nozzle's deflection limits the nozzle could become mechanically bound in the receptacle (like trying to remove a key from a lock while pulling sideways instead of pulling straight back) preventing nozzle/receptacle disengagement. The boomer follows the receiver aircraft's movement with the ruddevator control stick to maintain alignment between the inner fuel tube and the outer structural portion of the boom. He or she also monitors the receiver's position, via three boom position indicators, and commands the toggles in the receptacle to disengage the nozzle -- a disconnect -- before the receiver aircraft exceeds any published air refueling envelope limit.

When fueling is complete, the boomer or receiver pilot (typically the boomer) commands a disconnect. Nozzle/receptacle disengagement might also occur following an automatic pressure disconnect when the receiver's fuel system has been filled to capacity. Following disconnect, the boomer retracts the fuel tube from the receptacle and flies the boom clear of the receiver. While not in use, the boom is flown or hoisted (via a cable and hydraulic pump) up to the bottom of the tanker and latched in position to minimize drag. The receiver backs away and clears the tanker, then continues on its mission.

Flying Boom Systems in Service

USAF fixed wing aircraft use the flying boom system exclusively. In addition to the US Air Force, the boom system is in use by the Netherlands (KDC-10), Israel (modified Boeing 707) and Turkey (ex-USAF KC-135R). Possibly the largest tanker aircraft, Iran took delivery of Boeing 747 tankers equipped with a single boom and three drogues in early 1976, but the current status of these aircraft is unknown. Both Japan and Italy have contracted with Boeing for tankers based on the B767.

The European EADS group has developed a boom refueling system using "fly-by-wire" controls that is compatible with other boom systems. This is offered on modified European Airbus type aircraft that are configured as tankers.

Advantages of Boom and Receptacle

Disadvantages of Boom and Receptacle

Probe and Drogue

Tornado GR4 refueling from the drogue of an RAF VC10 tanker over Iraq
Tornado GR4 refueling from the drogue of an RAF VC10 tanker over Iraq

As its name implies, this refueling method employs a flexible hose that trails from the tanker aircraft. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Vickers VC10 is a British Airliner designed and built by Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft Ltd and first flown in 1962. The drogue (or para-drogue), sometimes called a basket, is a fitting resembling a windsock or shuttlecock, attached at its narrow end with a valve to a flexible hose. A shuttlecock' is a high- drag Projectile used in the sport of Badminton. The drogue stabilizes the hose in flight and provides a funnel to aid insertion of the receiver aircraft probe into the hose. The hose connects to a Hose Drum Unit (HDU). When not in use, the hose/drogue is reeled completely into the HDU. The receiver has a probe, which is a rigid arm placed on the aircraft's nose or fuselage. This probe is often retracted when not in use, particularly on high speed aircraft. At the end of the probe is a valve that is closed until it mates with the drogue, after which it opens and allows fuel to pass from tanker to receiver. The valves in the probe and drogue that are most commonly used are to a NATO standard and were originally developed by the company Flight Refueling Limited. The North Atlantic Treaty Cobham plc ( is a British manufacturing company based in Wimborne Minster, Dorset, England. This standardization allows drogue-equipped tanker aircraft from many nations the ability to refuel probe-equipped aircraft from other nations. The NATO standard probe system incorporates shear rivets that attach the refueling valve to the end of the probe. This is so that if a large side-load or up-and-down load develops while in contact with the drogue, the rivets shear and the fuel valve breaks off rather than the probe or receiver aircraft suffering structural damage. A so-called "broken probe" (actually a broken fuel valve, as described above) may happen if poor flying technique is used by the receiver pilot, or in turbulence. Sometimes the valve is retained in the tanker drogue and prevents further refueling from that drogue until removed during ground maintenance. Where similar types of fighter aircraft are pod-equipped (compared to large transport aircraft) this is known as "buddy tanking" or "buddy-buddy" refueling, and the HDU is known as a “buddy pod” or “buddy store”. [5]

Probe and Drogue Operation

The tanker aircraft flies straight and level and extends the hose/drogue which is allowed to trail out behind and below the tanker under normal aerodynamic forces. The pilot of the receiver aircraft extends his probe (if required) and uses normal flight controls to "fly" the refueling probe directly into the basket. This requires a closure rate of approximately two knots (walking speed) in order to establish solid probe/drogue couple and pushing the hose several feet into the HDU. Too little closure will cause an incomplete connection and no fuel flow (or occasionally leaking fuel). Too much closure is dangerous because it can lead the hose developing a sine wave that can cause a side-load on the probe, severing the probe tip. The optimal approach is from behind and below (not level with) the drogue. Because the drogue is relatively light (typically soft canvas webbing) and subject to aerodynamic forces, it can be pushed around by the bow wave of approaching aircraft, exacerbating engagement even in smooth air. After initial contact, the hose and drogue is pushed forward by the receiver a certain distance (typically, a few feet), and the hose is reeled slowly back onto its drum in the HDU. This opens the tanker's main refueling valve allowing fuel to flow to the drogue under the appropriate pressure (assuming the tanker crew has energized the pump). Tension on the hose is aerodynamically "balanced" by a a motor in the HDU so that as the receiver aircraft moves fore and aft, the hose retracts and extends, thus preventing bends in the hose that would cause undo side loads on the probe. Fuel flow is typically indicated by illumination of a green light near the HDU. If the hose is pushed in too far or not far enough, a cutoff switch will inhibit fuel flow, which is typically accompanied by an amber light. Disengagement is commanded by the tanker pilot with a red light. [6]

S-3 Viking buddy tanker with drogue deployed
S-3 Viking buddy tanker with drogue deployed

Probe-and-Drogue Systems in Service

USAF helicopters, and all US Navy and Marine Corps aircraft refuel using the “hose-and-drogue. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout ” NATO countries and other western allies also refuel with the hose-and drogue. The probe-and-drogue system was first used in service on late models of the KB-29M Superfortress. See also B-29 Superfortress The Boeing B-29 Superfortress variants is an extensive list of all the Experimental and Production models that Its first use in combat occurred on May 29, 1952 when twelve F-84s were refueled during a mission from Itazuke, Japan to Sariwon, North Korea. Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the Year 1952 ( MCMLII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Also in the 1950s, the Royal Air Force converted two squadrons of Valiant bombers to the tanker role by mounting a Hose Drum Unit (HDU) in the bomb bay. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout These were No. 214 Squadron RAF at Marham, operational in 1957, and No. 90 Squadron RAF at Honingon, operational in 1958. No 214 Squadron is a former unit of the Royal Air Force. History No 214 Squadron was formed from No Royal Air Force Station Marham, commonly known as RAF Marham, is a Royal Air Force station, a Military Airbase, near the No XC Squadron RAF was formed as a fighter Squadron on 17 October 1917 but never reached operational duties and disbanded in August 1918 RAF Honington is a Royal Air Force station 6 miles south of Thetford near Ixworth in Suffolk, England. In the 1960s the Valiant was replaced by Victor tankers that had up to three refueling points, one under the fuselage and a pod under each wing. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Advantages of Probe and Drogue

Disadvantages of Probe and Drogue

Boom Drogue Adapter Units

Cockpit view of KC-135 boom in the US Navy "Iron Maiden" configuration.
Cockpit view of KC-135 boom in the US Navy "Iron Maiden" configuration.
Air National Guard KC-135 tanks a US Navy Hornet
Air National Guard KC-135 tanks a US Navy Hornet

USAF KC-135 and French Air Force KC-135FR refueling-boom equipped tankers can be field converted to a probe-and-drogue system using a special adapter unit. The French Air Force ( French: Armée de l'Air (ALA literally Air Army) is the Air force of the French Armed Forces. In this configuration, the tanker retains its articulated boom, but has a hose/drogue at the end of it instead of the usual nozzle. The tanker boom operator holds the boom in a static position, while the receiver aircraft then flies the probe into the basket. Unlike the soft canvas basket used in most drogue systems, the adapter units used on adapter units utilize a steel basket, grimly known as the “iron maiden” by naval aviators because of its unforgiving nature. A United States Naval Aviator is a pilot in the United States Navy, Marine Corps or Coast Guard. Soft drogues can be contacted slightly off center, wherein the probe is guided into the hose receptacle by the canvas drogue. The metal drogue, when contacted even slightly off center, will pivot out of place, potentially “slapping” the aircraft’s fuselage and causing damage.

The other major difference with this system is that when contacted, the hose does not “retract” into an HDU. Instead, the hose bends depending on how far it is push toward the boom. If it is pushed too far, it can loop around the probe or nose of the aircraft, damage the windscreen, or cause contact with the rigid boom. If not pushed far enough, the probe will become disengaged ceasing fueling. Because of a much smaller position keeping tolerance, staying properly connected to a KC-135 adapter unit is considerably more difficult than staying in a traditional hose/drogue configuration. When fueling is complete, the receiver carefully backs off until the probe refueling valve disconnects from the valve in the basket. Off center disengagements, like engagements, can cause the drogue to “prang” the probe and/or strike the aircraft’s fuselage.

Multiple Refueling Systems

Some tankers have both a boom and one or more complete hose-and-drogue systems. Where these are attached to the wings, the system is known as the Multi-Point Refueling System or MPRS. The USAF KC-10 has both a flying boom and also a separate hose and drogue system manufactured by the Sargent Fletcher company. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Both are on the aircraft centerline at the tail of the aircraft, so only one system can be used at once. However, such a system allows all types of probe- and receptacle-equipped aircraft to be refueled, including large aircraft that are probe-equipped and do not have the maneuverability to take fuel from an off-centerline wing pod. Many KC-135 and some KC-10s are also equipped with dual under-wing hose-and-drogue attachments known as Wing Air Refueling Pods (WARPs).

Wing-to-wing Refueling

In this method, similar to the probe and drogue method but more complicated, the tanker aircraft released a flexible hose from its wingtip. An aircraft, flying beside it, had to catch the hose with a special lock under its wingtip. After the hose was locked, and the connection was established, the fuel was pumped. It was used on a small number of Soviet Tu-4 and Tu-16 only (the tanker variant was Tu-16Z). WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Grappling Systems

Some historic systems used for pioneering aerial refueling used the grappling method, where the tanker aircraft unreeled the fuel hose and the receiver aircraft would grapple the hose midair, reel it in and connect it so that fuel can be transferred either with the assistance of pumps or simply by gravity feed. A siphon (also spelled syphon) is a continuous tube that allows liquid to drain from a reservoir through an intermediate point that is higher than the reservoir the flow being This was the method used on the Question Mark endurance flight in 1929, and also the first ever non-stop around-the-world flight by Strategic Air Command's B-50 nuclear-capable bomber nicknamed the Lucky Lady II in 1949. Question Mark was a modified Atlantic-Fokker C-2A airplane modified and flown by aviators from the United States Army Air Corps to experiment The Strategic Air Command (SAC was both a major command and a "specified command" in the U WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion.

Compatibility Issues

The probe-and drogue system is not compatible with flying boom equipment, creating a problem for military planners where mixed forces are involved. For this reason (as well as other advantages of probe/drogue systems), the USAF has considered converting boom systems to probe-and-drogue. [9]

Strategic and tactical implications

An F-15E Strike Eagle disengages from a KC-10 Extender
An F-15E Strike Eagle disengages from a KC-10 Extender

Strategic uses and considerations

The development of the KC-97 and KC-135 Stratotankers was pushed by the Cold War requirement of the United States to be able to keep fleets of nuclear-armed B-47 Stratojet and B-52 Stratofortress strategic bombers airborne around-the-clock either to threaten retaliation against a Soviet strike for mutual assured destruction, or to bomb the U. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout A strategic bomber is a heavy type Aircraft designed to drop large amounts of ordnance onto a distant target for the purposes of debilitating an enemy's The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 Mutual assured destruction ( MAD; sometimes written as mutually assured destruction) is a Doctrine of military Strategy in which a full-scale S. S. R. first had it been ordered to do so by the President. The bombers would fly orbits around their assigned positions from which they were to enter Soviet airspace if they received the order, and the tankers would refill the bombers' fuel tanks so that they could keep a force in the air 24 hours a day, and still have enough fuel to reach their targets in the Soviet Union. This also ensured that a first strike against the bombers' airfields could not obliterate the U. In Nuclear strategy, a first strike is a preemptive surprise attack employing overwhelming force An aerodrome is an area on land or water (including any buildings installations and equipment used for the arrival and departure of aircraft S. 's ability to retaliate by bomber. A noted example of refueling used in this manner in the movies can be seen in the opening credits of Dr. Strangelove.

In the UK, in 1958 Valiant tankers were developed with one HDU mounted in the bomb-bay. Valiant tankers were used to demonstrate radius of action by refueling a Valiant bomber non-stop from UK to Singapore in 1960 and a Vulcan bomber to Australia in 1961. Other UK exercises involving refueling from Valiant tankers included Javelin and Lightning fighters, also Vulcan and Victor bombers. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout For instance, in 1962 a squadron of Javelin air defense aircraft was refueled in stages from the UK to India and back (exercise "Shiksha"). India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country After the retirement of the Valiant in 1965, the Handley Page Victor took over the UK refueling role and had three hoses (HDUs). These were a fuselage-mounted HDU and a refueling pod on each wing. The center hose could refuel any probe-equipped aircraft, the wing pods could refuel the more maneuverable fighter/ground attack types.

A byproduct of this development effort and the building of large numbers of tankers was that these tankers were also available to refuel cargo aircraft, fighter aircraft, and ground attack aircraft, in addition to bombers, for ferrying to distant theaters of operations. A cargo aircraft (also known as freighters or freight aircraft) is an Fixed-wing aircraft designed or converted for the carriage of goods rather A fighter aircraft is a Military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat with other Aircraft, as opposed to a Bomber, which is designed Ground-attack aircraft are military aircraft designed to attack targets on the ground and are often deployed as Close air support for and in proximity to their own ground forces This was much used during the Vietnam War, when many aircraft could not have covered the transoceanic distances without aerial refueling, even with intermediate bases in Hawaii and Okinawa. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the is one of Japan 's southern prefectures, and consists of hundreds of the Ryukyu Islands in a chain over 1000 km long which extends southwest from Kyūshū In addition to allowing the transport of the aircraft themselves, the cargo aircraft could also carry matériel, supplies, and personnel to Vietnam without landing to refuel. Materiel (from the French "matériel" for equipment or hardware related to the word Material) is a term used in English to refer to the Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially KC-135s were also frequently used for refueling of air combat missions from air bases in Thailand.

The USAF SR-71 Blackbird strategic reconnaissance aircraft made frequent use of air-to-air refueling. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Its home base was at Beale AFB in central California, but to make actual reconnaissance missions over enemy territory, it was necessary to deploy the craft to forward bases in Okinawa or in Europe. Beale Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base near Marysville, California, that was established in 1943 California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Hence, there were lots of trans-Pacific and trans-Atlantic flights. Also, for safe takeoff performance, it was necessary for the SR-71 to take off with less-than-full fuel tanks. Takeoff is the phase of Flight in which an Aircraft goes through a transition from moving along the ground ( Taxiing) to flying in the air usually The SR-71 would then rendezvous with a specially modified KC-135 to top up its tanks. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Then the SR-71 was capable of flying for many hours on its own. This tanker variant was necessary because the SR-71 used a special fuel, JP-7, with a very high flash point (needed to withstand the high skin temperatures of Mach 3+ cruising flight) which could not be used in other aircraft engines and the KC-135Q was equipped with a separate internal bladder system to carry and deliver this non-standard fuel. JP-7 (Jet Propellant 7 MIL-T-38219 is a Jet fuel developed by the U The flash point of a flammable liquid is the lowest Temperature at which it can form an ignitable mixture in air WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

A KC-10 Extender from Travis Air Force Base, California, refuels an F-22 Raptor
A KC-10 Extender from Travis Air Force Base, California, refuels an F-22 Raptor

Tactical uses and considerations

The capability of refueling after takeoff conveys two considerable tactical advantages to those forces with access to tankers. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Travis Air Force Base is a United States Air Force air base under the operational control of the Air Mobility Command (AMC located three miles (5 It allows attack aircraft, fighters, and bombers to reach distances they could not without refueling, and patrol aircraft to remain airborne longer. Additionally, since an aircraft's maximum takeoff weight is generally less than the maximum weight with which it can stay airborne, this allows an aircraft to take off with only a partial fuel load, and carry additional payload weight instead. In military aircraft or space exploration the payload is the carrying capacity of an aircraft or space ship including as Cargo, Munitions scientific instruments Then, after reaching altitude, the aircraft's tanks can be topped up by a tanker, bringing it up to its maximum flight weight.

Vietnam War

During the Vietnam War, it was common for USAF fighter-bombers flying from Thailand to North Vietnam to refuel from KC-135s en-route to their target. The Vietnam War, also known as the Second Indochina War, or the Vietnam Conflict, occurred in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj The Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRVN or less commonly Vietnamese Democratic Republic (Việt Nam Dân Chủ Cộng Hòa was a Country on the northern half of Vietnam Besides extending their range, this enabled the F-105s and F-4 Phantoms to carry more bombs and rockets. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see Wikipe diaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Tankers were also available for refueling on the way back if necessary. In addition to ferrying aircraft across the Pacific Ocean, aerial refueling made it possible for battle damaged fighters, with heavily leaking fuel tanks, to hook up to the tankers and let the tanker feed its engine(s) until the point where they could glide to the base and land. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions This saved numerous aircraft.

The US Navy frequently used carrier-based aerial tankers like the KA-3 Skywarrior to refuel Navy and Marine aircraft such as the F-4, A-4 Skyhawk, A-6 Intruder, and A-7 Corsair II. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout This was particularly useful when a pilot returning from an airstrike was having difficulty landing and was running low on jet fuel. This gave him fuel for more attempts at landing for a successful "trap" on an aircraft carrier. The KA-3 could also refuel fighters on extended Combat Air Patrol. USMC jets based in South Vietnam and Thailand also used USMC KC-130 Hercules transports for air-to-air refueling on missions. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Falklands War/South Atlantic War

During the Falklands War, aerial refueling played a vital role in all of the Argentine successful attacks against the Royal Navy. The Falklands War (Guerra de las Malvinas/Guerra del Atlántico Sur also called the Falklands Conflict/Crisis, was fought in 1982 between Argentina and the The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) The Argentine Air Force had only 2 KC-130H Hercules available and they were used to refuel both Air Force and Navy A-4 Skyhawks and Navy Super Etendards in their Exocet strikes. The Argentine Air Force ( Fuerza Aérea Argentina or FAA) is the national aviation branch of the Armed forces of Argentina. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Exocet is a French -built Anti-ship missile whose various versions can be launched from surface vessels submarines and airplanes The Hercules on several occasions approached the islands (where the Sea Harriers were in patrol) to search and guide the A-4s in their returning flights. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout On one of those flights (callsign Jaguar) one of the KC-130s went to rescue a damaged A-4 and delivered 39,000 lb (18,000 kg) of fuel while carrying it to its airfield at San Julian. Puerto San Julián, also known historically as Port St Julian, is a natural harbour in Patagonia in the Santa Cruz Province of Argentina located On the other hand, the Mirage IIIs and Daggers lack of air refueling capability prevented them from achieving better results. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Mirages were unable to reach the islands with a strike payload, and the Daggers could do so only for a 5 minute strike flight.

On the British side, air refueling was carried out by the Handley Page Victor K. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout 2 and after the Argentine surrender by modified C-130 Hercules tankers. These aircraft aided deployments from the UK to the Ascension Island staging post in the Atlantic and further deployments south of bomber, transport and maritime patrol aircraft. Ascension Island is an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, around from the coast of Africa The most famous refueling missions were the "Operation Black Buck" sorties which involved 14 Victor tankers refueling single Avro Vulcan bombers to attack the Argentine-captured airfield at Port Stanley on the Falkland Islands. During the Falklands War, Operations Black Buck 1 to Black Buck 7 was a series of seven extremely long-range ground attack missions WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout They attempted to knock out the Port Stanley runway, blocking the Argentine C-130 Hercules re-enforcement operations. The raids were the longest-range bombing raids in history until surpassed by the B-52 in the 1991 Gulf War and later B-2 flights. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

The Victor tankers, retired in 1993, were replaced in RAF service by Lockheed L-1011 and Vickers VC10 transports which were bought second-hand and fitted as tankers. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Vickers VC10 is a British Airliner designed and built by Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft Ltd and first flown in 1962. The L-1011s, converted by Marshall Aerospace, and VC10s, converted by British Aerospace, can refuel any aircraft fitted with the NATO standard probe system. The Marshall companies have been internationally associated with aerospace engineering for over ninety years

Libya

During Operation El Dorado Canyon, several F-111 Aardvark fighter-bombers stationed in the United Kingdom utilized aerial refueling to enable them to operate non-stop against targets in Libya. The United States bombing of Libya (code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon) comprised the joint United States Air Force, Navy and WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Since the aircraft were allowed to cross neither French nor Spanish airspace, they had to make a detour around the Iberian Peninsula and stay above International waters during all transit. The Iberian Peninsula, or Iberia, is located in the extreme southwest of Europe, and includes modern day Spain, Portugal, Andorra

Persian Gulf War

F-14 Tomcats from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf await their turn refueling from a KC-10A over Iraq during Desert Storm.
F-14 Tomcats from the Red Sea and Persian Gulf await their turn refueling from a KC-10A over Iraq during Desert Storm.

During the time of Operation Desert Shield, the military build up to the Persian Gulf War, US Air Force KC-135s, McDonnell Douglas KC-10As, and USMC KC-130 Hercules aircraft were deployed to forward air bases in England, Diego Garcia, and Saudi Arabia. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland Diego Garcia is the largest Atoll, in terms of land area in Chagos Archipelago, part of the British Indian Ocean Territory. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Aircraft stationed in Saudi Arabia normally maintained an orbit in the Iraq-Saudi Arabia neutral zone, informally known as "Frisbee", and refueled Coalition Aircraft whenever necessary. The Saudi–Iraqi neutral zone was an area of 7044 km² on the border between Saudi Arabia and Iraq within which the border between the two countries had not been Two side by side tracks over central Saudi Arabia called "Prune" and "Raisin" featured 2-4 basket equipped KC-135 tankers each and were used by Navy aircraft from the Red Sea Battle Force. Large Navy strike groups from the Red Sea would send A-6 tankers to the Prune and Raisin tracks ahead of the strike aircraft arriving to top off and take up station to the right of the tankers thereby providing an additional tanking point. RAF Handley Page Victor and VC-10 tankers were also used to refuel British and coalition aircraft and were popular with the US Navy for their docile basket behavior and having three point refueling stations. The Vickers VC10 is a British Airliner designed and built by Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft Ltd and first flown in 1962. An additional track was maintained close to the northwest border for the EA-3 ELINT aircraft and any Navy aircraft needing emergency fuel. These 24-hour air-refueling zones helped make the intense air campaign during Operation Desert Storm possible. An additional 24/7 tanker presence was maintained over the Red Sea itself to refuel Navy F-14 Tomcats maintaining Combat Air Patrol tracks. Combat air patrol (CAP is a type of flying mission for Fighter aircraft. During the last week of the conflict, KC-10 tankers moved inside Iraq to support barrier CAP missions set up to block Iraqi fighters from escaping to Iran.

On January 16-17 1991, the first combat sortie of Desert Storm, and the longest combat sortie in history, at that time, was launched from Barksdale AFB, Louisiana. Barksdale Air Force Base is a United States Air Force base located three Nautical miles (6 km) east of the Central business district of Seven B-52Gs flew a thirty-five hour mission to the Persian Gulf region, and back, to launch Boeing Air Launched Cruise Missiles (ALCMs) with the surprise use of conventional warheads. All of this was made possible by in-flight refueling, and by the secret switch away from nuclear warheads on the ALCMs.

An extremely useful aerial tanker in Desert Storm was the USAF KC-10A Extender. Besides being larger than the other tankers, the KC-10A is equipped with the USAF "boom" refueling and also the "hose-and-drogue" system. This makes it possible for the KC-10A to refuel USAF aircraft, and also USMC and US Navy jets that use the "probe-and-drogue" system, and also allied aircraft, such as those from the UK and Saudi Arabia. KC-135s may be equipped with a drogue depending on the mission profile.

The KC-10A was originally designed for the support of NATO in Europe by the USAF. In the case of armed conflict, with a full jet fuel load, the KC-10A is capable of flying from a base on the east coast of the US or Canada, flying nonstop to Europe, transferring a considerable amount of fuel in air-to-air refueling, and then returning to its home base, all without landing anywhere. This could have been very useful in the case when numerous European bases become disabled by Warsaw Pact strikes in Germany, the Netherlands, France, and Great Britain. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands

Kosovo War

The USAF provided nearly 90 percent of the NATO tanker force, 112 active and 63 Reserve-component KC-135 and KC-10 tankers. [10] Tankers were also provided from Britain’s RAF (Tristars and VC-10s), French Air Force and Turkish Air Force KC-135s, Spanish Air Force KC-130 Hercules and Royal Netherlands Air Force KDC-10s. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Vickers VC10 is a British Airliner designed and built by Vickers-Armstrongs (Aircraft Ltd and first flown in 1962. The French Air Force ( French: Armée de l'Air (ALA literally Air Army) is the Air force of the French Armed Forces. The Turkish Air Force (Türk Hava Kuvvetleri is a branch of the Turkish Armed Forces. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Spanish Air Force ( Spanish: Ejército del Aire; literally "Army of the Air" is the Air force of Spain. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout The Royal Netherlands Air Force (RNLAF, Dutch Koninklijke Luchtmacht (KLu, is the aviation branch of the Netherlands armed forces WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Although some European nations provided air-refueling aircraft, the conflict highlighted the problem Europe has with a lack of such aircraft and dependence on the United States for tanker support during a major operation. Some European nations sought to address this lack of capability, such as the Italian Air Force purchase of the Boeing KC-767, but there is still a huge difference in air-refueling capability between the US and Europe. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout

Aerial Rearming

In 2003 the U. S. Air Force and Far Technologies applied secretly for patents on mid-air rearming of aircraft. The technique proposed is similar in many respects to airborne refueling, with a number of notable modifications. The airborne rearming system comprises a rearming plane with an internal bomb storage area and loading device consisting of a large aft door and a modified remote-driven robotic arm (boom) equipped with a day-night camera as well as sensors. On the attack aircraft, a special pylon to receive the arms from the boom. At present financial and technological problems stand in the way of aerial rearming, mainly the need for an automatic system to perform the rearm currently under development for aerial refueling. [11]

HIFR (Helicopter In-Flight Refueling)

raising a hose from ship
raising a hose from ship
hose connect and refueling
hose connect and refueling

A variation of aerial refueling is when a naval helicopter approaches a warship (not necessarily suited for landing operations) and receives fuel through the cabin while hovering. History Since 400 AD Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys.

Note: Alternatively, some helicopters equipped with a probe extending out the front can be refueled from a drogue-equipped tanker aircraft in a similar manner to fixed-wing aircraft by matching a high forward speed for a helicopter to a slow speed for the fixed-wing tanker. Therefore a less ambiguous meaning for the abbreviation HIFR would be HOVER In-Flight Refueling.

Note also: The transfer of cargo while an aircraft is hovering is known within the US Navy and the United States Coast Guard as VERTREP. VERTREP is an abbreviation for Vertical replenishment. This refers to aerial supply of seaborne vessels by Helicopter.

Recent Developments

Tanker aircraft by refueling system

Boom and receiver

A B-2 Spirit prepares to refuel from a KC-135R
A B-2 Spirit prepares to refuel from a KC-135R

Probe and drogue

An Australian Boeing 707 refueling a US Navy F/A-18 in 2002
An Australian Boeing 707 refueling a US Navy F/A-18 in 2002
German Luftwaffe Airbus A310 MRTT ready for refueling, shown at the Paris Air Show 2007
German Luftwaffe Airbus A310 MRTT ready for refueling, shown at the Paris Air Show 2007

Popular culture

Media

See also

References

  1. ^ Note AAR also stands for "After Action Review" (de-briefing) and in aviation, IFR also stands for "Instrument Flight Rules" (flight by instrument references only such as in cloud). A buddy store is an external Fuel tank loaded on a Hardpoint on a Military aircraft. A space rendezvous between two Spacecraft, often between a spacecraft and a Space station, is an Orbital maneuver where the two arrive at the same A spacecraft is a Vehicle or machine designed for Spaceflight. The After Action Review (AAR is a structured review or de-brief process for analyzing what happened why it happened and how it can be done better by
  2. ^ There is no indication that any relationship exists between A. D. Hunter and the Hunter brothers.
  3. ^ a b History of Aviation, Part 19, 1938
  4. ^ ref<ref>KC-135 Aerial Refueling Manual T. O. 1-1C-1-3. <ref>/ref<ref>, requiring a reduction in refueling pressure when servicing these aircraft. <ref>http://digital. library. unt. edu/govdocs/crs/permalink/meta-crs-6702:1</li> <li id="cite_note-4">'''[[#cite_ref-4|^]]''' {{cite book | last = | coauthors = Naval Air Systems Command | title = A1-F18AC-NFM-000 Naval Aviation Training and Operating Procedures Standardization (NATOPS) Manual | publisher = United States [[Department of the Navy]] | date = 1 Aug 2006 | pages = pp. 364}} </li> <li id="cite_note-5">'''[[#cite_ref-5|^]]''' {{cite book | last = | coauthors = Naval Air Systems Command | title = A1-F18AC-NFM-000 Naval Aviation Training and Operating Procedures Standardization (NATOPS) Manual | publisher = United States [[Department of the Navy]] | date = 1 Aug 2006 | pages = pp. 364}} </li> <li id="cite_note-6">'''[[#cite_ref-6|^]]''' Maj. Marck R. Cobb, “Aerial Refueling: The Need for a Multipoint, Dual-System Capability,” AU-ARI-CP-87-3, Air University Press, July 1987. </li> <li id="cite_note-7">'''[[#cite_ref-7|^]]''' [http://fas. org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL32910. pdf Air Force Aerial Refueling Methods: Flying Boom versus Hose-and-Drogue</li> <li id="cite_note-8">'''[[#cite_ref-8|^]]''' http://digital. library. unt. edu/govdocs/crs/permalink/meta-crs-6702:1</li> <li id="cite_note-9">'''[[#cite_ref-9|^]]''' [http://www. airpower. au. af. mil/airchronicles/apj/apj99/win99/begert. htm Kosovo and Theater Air Mobility<!-- Bot generated title -->]</li> <li id="cite_note-10">'''[[#cite_ref-10|^]]''' [http://www. tfot. info/content/view/81/ ABRAcadabra - AirBorne ReArming - TFOT<!-- Bot generated title -->]</li> <li id="cite_note-11">'''[[#cite_ref-11|^]]''' http://www. omegaairrefueling. com/vms/</li> <li id="cite_note-12">'''[[#cite_ref-12|^]]''' http://www. aviationweek. com/aw/blogs/defense/index. jsp?plckController=Blog&plckScript=blogScript&plckElementId=blogDest&plckBlogPage=BlogViewPost&plckPostId=Blog%3a27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7Post%3ab7a0eae1-e0db-4cf5-b169-2c5633272ceb</li> <li id="cite_note-13">'''[[#cite_ref-13|^]]''' https://www. airforcehistory. hq. af. mil/Publications/fulltext/75yrs_inflight_refueling. pdf</li></ol></ref>

External links

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