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An Adivasi woman from the Kutia Kondh tribal group in Orissa
An Adivasi woman from the Kutia Kondh tribal group in Orissa

Ādivāsīs (in Devanagari script: आदिवासी), literally "original inhabitants", comprise a substantial indigenous minority of the population of India. Khonds, or Kandhs are an aboriginal tribe of India, inhabiting the tributary states of Orissa and Srikakulam, in the Vizianagaram Orissa (ଓଡ଼ିଶା is a state located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Indian tribals are also called Atavika (forest dwellers, in Sanskrit texts), Vanvasis or Girijans (hill people, e. g. by Mahatma Gandhi). Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi ( Gujarati: મોહનદાસ કરમચંદ ગાંધી moɦən̪d̪äs kəɾəmʧən̪d̪ gän̪d̪ʱi (2 October 1869 – 30 January [1]

These autochthonous people, popularly known as the Tribal peoples are particularly numerous in the Indian states of Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal and in extreme northeastern states such as Mizoram. India is a union of states comprising twenty-eight states and seven union territories. Orissa (ଓଡ଼ିଶା is a state located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often Chhattisgarh ( Chhattisgarhi / Hindi: छत्तीसगढ़ tʃʰət̪t̪iːsgəɽʰ, a state in central India, formed when the sixteen Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. Maharashtra ( Marathi: mahārāṣṭra, IPA) is a state located on the western coast of India. Bihar ( Hindi:बिहार Urdu: بہار bɪhaːr) is a state in eastern India. Jharkhand ( Hindi: झारखंड Bengali: ঝাড়খণ্ডdʒʰaːɽkʰəɳɖ is a state in eastern India. West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India. Officially recognized by the Indian government as "Scheduled Tribes" in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, they are often grouped together with scheduled castes in the category "Scheduled Castes and Tribes", which is eligible for certain affirmative action measures. The Constitution of India ( Hindi: भारतीय़ संविधान see names in other Indian languages) is the supreme law of India. Scheduled Castes ("SC"s and Scheduled Tribes ("ST"s are Indian population groupings that are explicitly recognized by the Constitution of Scheduled Castes ("SC"s and Scheduled Tribes ("ST"s are Indian population groupings that are explicitly recognized by the Constitution of

They have their own tribal religions which are different than Islam or Vedic Hinduism but more close to Tantric Shiavism. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. During the 19th century, substantial numbers converted to Christianity and Brahmoism (modern Hindu sect). The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Brahmoism is a young non- Syncretic, Rational, Deistic religion blending Immanent Monism and Transcendant Dualism

Popular Adivasi gods include Lord Rama, Sabari, Shiva and Birsa Munda. Rama ( IAST: rāma Devanāgarī: राम Khmer: Phreah Ream Thai: Phra Ram Lao: Phra Lam Tagalog: Sabari (Tamil சபரி is a Kollywood film directed by A R Shiva:(pronunciation; Sanskrit: शिव Śiva, lit "Auspicious one" One of the Trimurtis Shiva is the supreme God in the Shaiva Birsa Munda (1875– June 9 1900) was a national leader in the late 19th century political independence movement during the British Raj in India

Maharishi Valmiki, the author of the Ramayana was a Bhil Adivasi. Valmiki ( Sanskrit: वाल्मीकि vālmīki) (ca 400 BCE northern India is celebrated as the poet harbinger in Sanskrit literature The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki

Many smaller tribal groups are quite sensitive to ecological degradation caused by modernization. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Both commercial forestry and intensive agriculture have proved destructive to the forests that had endured swidden agriculture for many centuries. Forestry is the Art and Science of managing forests tree Plantations and related Natural resources. A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria Slash and burn consists of cutting and burning of Forests or Woodlands to create fields for Agriculture or Pasture for Livestock, or

Contents

Geographic Overview

There is a substantial list of Scheduled Tribes in India recognized as tribal under the Constitution of India. This is a full list of Scheduled Tribes in India, as recognised in India 's Constitution a total of 645 distict tribes The Constitution of India ( Hindi: भारतीय़ संविधान see names in other Indian languages) is the supreme law of India. Tribal peoples constitute 8. 3% of the nation's total population, over 84 million people according to the 2001 census. Year 2001 ( MMI) was a Common year starting on Monday according to the Gregorian calendar. One concentration lives in a belt along the Himalayas stretching through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand in the west, to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur, and Nagaland in the northeast. ( Dogri: जम्मू और कश्मीर Urdu: جموں و کشمیر is the northernmost state of India. Himachal Pradesh ( Hindi: हिमाचल प्रदेश Punjabi: ਹਿਮਾਚਲ ਪ੍ਰਦੇਸ਼ pronounced) is a state in the Uttarakhand ( Hindi: उत्तराखण्ड or उत्तराखंड Uttar + Akhand i Assam) ( Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Meghalaya is a small state in north-eastern India. The word "Meghalaya" literally means "The Abode of Clouds" in Sanskrit and ( Bengali script: ত্রিপুরা is a state in North-East India. Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश   Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India. Manipur (mnipur in Meitei Mayek) is a state in northeastern India, making its capital in the city of Nagaland ( Hindi: नागालैंड is a hill state located in the far north-eastern part of India. In the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland, more than 90% of the population is tribal. Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश   Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India Meghalaya is a small state in north-eastern India. The word "Meghalaya" literally means "The Abode of Clouds" in Sanskrit and Mizoram is one of the Seven Sister States in North Eastern India. Nagaland ( Hindi: नागालैंड is a hill state located in the far north-eastern part of India. However, in the remaining northeast states of Assam, Manipur, Sikkim, and Tripura, tribal peoples form between 20 and 30% of the population. Assam) ( Assamese: অসম Ôxôm) is a northeastern state of India with its capital at Dispur, a suburb of the city Manipur (mnipur in Meitei Mayek) is a state in northeastern India, making its capital in the city of Sikkim ( Nepali:, also Sikhim) is a Landlocked Indian state nestled in the Himalayas It is the least populous state in India ( Bengali script: ত্রিপুরা is a state in North-East India.

Another concentration lives in the hilly areas of central India (Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and, to a lesser extent, Andhra Pradesh); in this belt, which is bounded by the Narmada River to the north and the Godavari River to the southeast, tribal peoples occupy the slopes of the region's mountains. Chhattisgarh ( Chhattisgarhi / Hindi: छत्तीसगढ़ tʃʰət̪t̪iːsgəɽʰ, a state in central India, formed when the sixteen Madhya Pradesh (abbreviated as MP) ( Hindī: मध्य प्रदेश pronounced, Translation: Middle Province) often Orissa (ଓଡ଼ିଶା is a state located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. The Narmada नर्मदा Gujarati નર્મદા or Nerbudda (Narbada is a river in central India and the fifth largest river in the Indian subcontinent This article is about the river Godavari in India. For other uses see Godavari (disambiguation The Godavari ( Marathi language:गोदावरी Other tribals, including the Santals, live in Jharkhand and West Bengal. The Santals (also spelled as Santhal; formerly also Sonthal are the largest tribal community in India, found mainly in the states of West Bengal, Jharkhand ( Hindi: झारखंड Bengali: ঝাড়খণ্ডdʒʰaːɽkʰəɳɖ is a state in eastern India. West Bengal ( Bengali: পশ্চিমবঙ্গ Poshchim Bônggo poʃtʃim bɔŋgo is a state in eastern India. Central Indian states have the country's largest tribes, and, taken as a whole, roughly 75% of the total tribal population live there, although the tribal population there accounts for only around 10% of the region's total population.

There are smaller numbers of tribal people in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in south India; in western India in Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and the Andaman Islands and Nicobar Islands. Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India Tamil Nadu ( Tamil:, Country of the Tamils, t̪ɐmɨɻ n̪aːɽɯ is one of the 28 states of India. Kerala ( Malayalam: {{Kerala in Malayalam}}; South India is the area encompassing India 's states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu as well as the union Gujarat (ગુજરાત Gujǎrāt, pronounced) is a state in western India. Rājasthān ( Devanāgarī: राजस्थान raːdʒəst̪ʰaːn is the largest state of the Republic of India in terms of area Lakshadweep ( (ലക്ഷദ്വീപ്,) the smallest Union territory of India, is a group of islands 200 to 300 km off of the coast of The Andaman Islands are a group of islands in the Bay of Bengal, and are part of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands Union Territory of India. The Nicobar Islands are an island chain in the eastern Indian Ocean, and are part of the Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India About one percent of the populations of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are tribal, whereas about six percent in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are members of tribes. Kerala ( Malayalam: {{Kerala in Malayalam}}; Tamil Nadu ( Tamil:, Country of the Tamils, t̪ɐmɨɻ n̪aːɽɯ is one of the 28 states of India. Karnataka (ಕರ್ನಾಟಕ pronounced) is a state in the southern part of India

Criteria of 'Tribalness'

Apart from the use of strictly legal criteria, however, the problem of determining which groups and individuals are tribal is both subtle and complex. Because it concerns economic interests and voting blocs, the question of who are members of Scheduled Tribes rather than Backward Classes or Scheduled Castes is often controversial. The Central Government of India classifies some of its citizens based on their social and economic condition as Scheduled Caste, Scheduled Tribe and Other Backward Class Dalit is a self designation for group of people of South Asian descent who were traditionally regarded as untouchables or low Caste. Scholarly opinions also remain divided on this matter. In other parts of the world the Adivasis or Indigenous people are those who predate the colonizers. Many scholars, especially the westerners, claim that the Adivasis of India predate other communities of India. Indian scholars remain divided on this issue, for reasons best known to them. If one accepts that Adivasis predate all other mainstream societies one has to accept that other communities, including Hindus, are migrants in India. It would function as proof-text on "Aryan Invasion Theory" which most scholars (being its members) would vehemently deny it. At best, Adivasis have no say about their own identity. It is decided politically as "Scheduled tribe. " But even this title is controversial since it accepts as tribe. Will the Adivasis lose their tribe if they lose there Scheduled tribe status? The issue requires further clarification. Despite all these challenges there are specific traits of Adivasis that distinguish them from other Indian communities.

A number of traits have customarily been seen as establishing tribal rather than caste identity. These include language, social organization, religious affiliation, economic patterns, geographic location, and self-identification. Recognized tribes typically live in hilly regions somewhat remote from caste settlements; they generally speak a language recognized as tribal.

Unlike castes, which form part of a complex and interrelated local economic exchange system, tribes tend to form self-sufficient economic units. For most tribal people, land-use rights traditionally derive simply from tribal membership. Tribal society tends to the egalitarian, with its leadership based on ties of kinship and personality rather than on hereditary status. The word leadership can refer to Those entities that perform one or more acts of leading Tribes typically consist of segmentary lineages whose extended families provide the basis for social organization and control. A segmentary lineage Society is characterized by the organization of the society into segments what is often referred to as a tribal society. Tribal religion recognizes no authority outside the tribe.

Any of these criteria may not apply in specific instances. Language does not always give an accurate indicator of tribal or caste status. Especially in regions of mixed population, many tribal groups have lost their mother tongues and simply speak local or regional languages. In parts of Assam - an area historically divided between warring tribes and villages - increased contact among villagers began during the colonial period, and has accelerated since independence in 1947. Year 1947 ( MCMXLVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1947 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. A pidgin Assamese developed while educated tribal members learned Hindi and, in the late twentieth century, English. A pidgin is a simplified language that develops as a means of communication between two or more groups that do not have a language in common in situations such as Trade Assamese (অসমীয়া) (ɔxɔmija is the easternmost Indo-Aryan language, spoken mainly in the state of Assam in North-East Hindi ( Devanāgarī: hi [[wiktहिन्दी हिन्दी]] or hi [[wiktहिंदी हिंदी]] IAST:, IPA:) is English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Self-identification and group loyalty do not provide unfailing markers of tribal identity either. In the case of stratified tribes, the loyalties of clan, kin, and family may well predominate over those of tribe. In addition, tribes cannot always be viewed as people living apart; the degree of isolation of various tribes has varied tremendously. The Gonds, Santals, and Bhils traditionally have dominated the regions in which they have lived. The Gondi (Gōndi are a people in central India. The Gondi or Gond people are spread over the states of Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra The Santals (also spelled as Santhal; formerly also Sonthal are the largest tribal community in India, found mainly in the states of West Bengal, You may also be looking for Bheel or Bil Bhils are a tribal people of Central India. Moreover, tribal society is not always more egalitarian than the rest of the rural populace; some of the larger tribes, such as the Gonds, are highly stratified.

The apparently wide fluctuation in estimates of South Asia's tribal population through the twentieth century gives a sense of how unclear the distinction between tribal and nontribal can be. India's 1931 census enumerated 22 million tribal people, in 1941 only 10 million were counted, but by 1961 some 30 million and in 1991 nearly 68 million tribal members were included. Year 1931 ( MCMXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1931 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. The differences among the figures reflect changing census criteria and the economic incentives individuals have to maintain or reject classification as a tribal member.

These gyrations of census data serve to underline the complex relationship between caste and tribe. Although, in theory, these terms represent different ways of life and ideal types, in reality they stand for a continuum of social groups. In areas of substantial contact between tribes and castes, social and cultural pressures have often tended to move tribes in the direction of becoming castes over a period of years. Tribal peoples with ambitions for social advancement in Indian society at large have tried to gain the classification of caste for their tribes. On occasion, an entire tribe or part of a tribe joined a Hindu sect and thus entered the caste system en masse. If a specific tribe engaged in practices that Hindus deemed polluting, the tribe's status when it was assimilated into the caste hierarchy would be affected.

Since independence, however, the special benefits available to Scheduled Tribes have convinced many groups, even Hindus and Muslims, that they will enjoy greater advantages if so designated. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The schedule gives tribal people incentives to maintain their identity. By the same token, the schedule also includes a number of groups whose 'tribal' status, in cultural terms, is dubious at best.

During the 1990s, a number of political adivasi movements also introduced a more political rather than 'scientific' understanding of the term adivasi, sometimes linking the notion of adivasiness to the international indigenous peoples' movement, sometimes more to Dalit or Dravidian themes (see Gail Omvedt 2006: Dalit voices). Dalit is a self designation for group of people of South Asian descent who were traditionally regarded as untouchables or low Caste. Dravidian peoples refers to the peoples that natively speak languages belonging to the Dravidian language family.

Religion

Main article: Tribal religions in India

Adivasi Saints

Other Sages

Maharishis

Avatars

Other Tribals and Hinduism

Some Hindus believe that Indian tribals are close to the romantic ideal of the ancient silvan culture[8] of the Vedic people. Golwalkar said:

"The tribals "can be given yajñopavîta (…) They should be given equal rights and footings in the matter of religious rights, in temple worship, in the study of Vedas, and in general, in all our social and religious affairs. This is the only right solution for all the problems of casteism found nowadays in our Hindu society. ”[9]

At the Lingaraja temple in Bhubaneswar (11th century), there are Brahmin and Badu (tribal) priests. Bhubaneswar ( Oriya: BUbEnSvr Hindi: भुवनेश्वर in Sanskrit and Oriya/oDiA "The Lord of the Universe" is the capital and Brahmin ( Brāhmaṇa, sa ब्राह्मणः is the class of educators scholars and preachers in Brahminical Hinduism. The Badus have the most intimate contact with the deity of the temple, and only they can bathe and adorn it. [10]


The Bhil tribe is mentioned in the Mahabharata. You may also be looking for Bheel or Bil Bhils are a tribal people of Central India. The Bhil boy Eklavya's teacher was Drona, and he had the honour to be invited to Yudhisthira's Rajasuya Yajna at Indraprastha. In the epic Mahābhārata, Drona ( Sanskrit: द्रोण droNa) or Dronacharya (द्रोणाचार्य droNāchārya In the great Hindu epic Mahabharata, Yudhisthira ( Sanskrit: युधिष्ठिर yudhiṣṭhira) the eldest son of King Rajasuya was a sacrifice described in detail in the Mahabharata, performed by the ancient kings of India who considered themselves powerful enough to be an Emperor In Hinduism, Yajna ( Devanagari यज्ञ IAST yajña; also anglicized as Yagna, Yagya or Yadnya The city of Indraprastha ( City of Indra) ( Sanskrit: इन्‍द्रप्रस्‍थ a city in ancient India that was the capital of the kingdom [11] Indian tribals were also part of royal armies in the Ramayana and in the Arthasastra. The Rāmāyaṇa ( Devanāgarī: sa रामायण is an ancient Sanskrit epic attributed to the Hindu sage ( Maharishi) Valmiki The Arthashastra ( IAST: Arthaśāstra) is a Treatise on statecraft, economic policy and Military strategy which [12]

Bhakta Shabari was a Bhil woman that offered Shri Rama and Shri Laxmana 'ber' when they were searching for Shri Sita in the forest. Bhakti ( Devanāgarī: भक्ति) is a word of Sanskrit origin meaning devotion. Shabari ( Sanskrit: शबरी is a character in the Hindu epic Ramayana. SRi is a specification (spec badge given to mid-sized or larger cars which are fitted with performance engine suspension or other performance enhancements as standard Rama ( IAST: rāma Devanāgarī: राम Khmer: Phreah Ream Thai: Phra Ram Lao: Phra Lam Tagalog: SRi is a specification (spec badge given to mid-sized or larger cars which are fitted with performance engine suspension or other performance enhancements as standard SRi is a specification (spec badge given to mid-sized or larger cars which are fitted with performance engine suspension or other performance enhancements as standard SITA is a multinational Information technology company specialising in providing IT and telecommunication services to the Aviation industry Maharishi Matanga, a Bhil became a Brahmana. Maharshi ( Sanskrit महर्षि maharṣi, from महा mahā "great" + ऋषि {{IAST|ṛṣi}} Matanga ( Sanskrit: मतंग literally means an elephant In the Ramayana, Maharishi Matanga was a man who was brought up as a Brahmin This article lists a number of ancient and medieval Hindu Sants including legendary figures

Sarna

Strictly speaking Adivasis that are not Hindu have no name for their religion. Some western authors and Indian sociologists called them animists and spirit worshipers. In central India like Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and Orissa their religion is called Sarna, a name given from the Sacred Grove which functions as a place of worship. Jharkhand ( Hindi: झारखंड Bengali: ঝাড়খণ্ডdʒʰaːɽkʰəɳɖ is a state in eastern India. Chhattisgarh ( Chhattisgarhi / Hindi: छत्तीसगढ़ tʃʰət̪t̪iːsgəɽʰ, a state in central India, formed when the sixteen Orissa (ଓଡ଼ିଶା is a state located on the east coast of India, by the Bay of Bengal. Small activating RNA (saRNA molecules can induce target gene expression in a phenomenon referred to as dsRNA-induced transcriptional activation ( RNAa)

Tribal system

Tribals are not part of the caste system. This is an eglitarian society. Christian tribals do not automatically lose their traditional tribal rules.

When in 1891 a missionary asked 150 Munda Christians to "inter-dine" with people of different rank, only 20 Christians did so, and many converts lost their new faith. The Munda are a tribal (Adivasi people of the Jharkhand region which is spread over on five states of India ( Jharkhand, Bihar, West Bengal A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth Father Haghenbeek concluded on this episode that these rules are not "pagan", but a sign of "national sentiment and pride", and wrote:

“On the contrary, while proclaiming the equality of all men before God, we now tell them: preserve your race pure, keep your customs, refrain from eating with Lohars (blacksmiths), Turis (bamboo workers) and other people of lower rank. To become good Christians, it (inter-dining) is not required. ”[13]

However, many scholars argue that the claim that tribals are an egalitarian society in contrast to a caste-based society is a part of a larger political agenda by some to maximize any differences from tribal and urban societies. According to scholar Koenraad Elst, caste practices and social taboos among Indian tribals date back to antiquity:

"The Munda tribals not only practise tribal endogamy and commensality, but also observe a jâti division within the tribe, buttressed by notions of social pollution, a mythological explanation and harsh punishments. Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a social group. Cultures who practice endogamy require marriage between specified social groups classes or ethnicities Jātis (in Devanagari: जाति (the word literally means births) is the term used to denote communities and sub-communities in India A Munda Catholic theologian testifies: The tribals of Chhotanagpur are an endogamous tribe. Chhotanagpur is an area including the tribal areas of Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, and West Bengal states in India. Endogamy is the practice of marrying within a social group. Cultures who practice endogamy require marriage between specified social groups classes or ethnicities They usually do not marry outside the tribal community, because to them the tribe is sacred. The way to salvation is the tribe. Among the Santals, it is tabooed to marry outside the tribe or inside ones clan, just as Hindus marry inside their caste and outside their gotra. Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. For the Wasp Genus, see Gotra (wasp A Gotra is the Lineage More precisely: To protect their tribal solidarity, the Santals have very stringent marriage laws. The Santals (also spelled as Santhal; formerly also Sonthal are the largest tribal community in India, found mainly in the states of West Bengal, A Santal cannot marry a non-Santal or a member of his own clan. The former is considered as a threat to the tribe's integrity, while the latter is considered incestuous. Among the Ho of Chhotanagpur, the trespasses which occasion the exclusion from the tribe without chance of appeal, are essentially those concerning endogamy and exogamy. Ho (also known as Bihar Ho and Lanka Kol) is a Munda language of the Austroasiatic language family spoken primarily in India Exogamy has two related definitions both biological and cultural "

Inter-dining has also been prohibited by many Indian tribal peoples.

Education

Extending the system of primary education into tribal areas and reserving places for tribal children in middle and high schools and higher education institutions are central to government policy, but efforts to improve a tribe's educational status have had mixed results. Recruitment of qualified teachers and determination of the appropriate language of instruction also remain troublesome. Commission after commission on the "language question" has called for instruction, at least at the primary level, in the students' native tongue. In some regions, tribal children entering school must begin by learning the official regional language, often one completely unrelated to their tribal tongue.

Many tribal schools are plagued by high dropout rates. Children attend for the first three to four years of primary school and gain a smattering of knowledge, only to lapse into illiteracy later. Few who enter continue up to the tenth grade; of those who do, few manage to finish high school. Therefore, very few are eligible to attend institutions of higher education, where the high rate of attrition continues. Members of agrarian tribes like the Gonds often are reluctant to send their children to school, needing them, they say, to work in the fields. On the other hand, in those parts of the northeast where tribes have generally been spared the wholesale onslaught of outsiders, schooling has helped tribal people to secure political and economic benefits. The education system there has provided a corps of highly trained tribal members in the professions and high-ranking administrative posts.

Economy

Most tribes are concentrated in heavily forested areas that combine inaccessibility with limited political or economic significance. Historically, the economy of most tribes was subsistence agriculture or hunting and gathering. Tribal members traded with outsiders for the few necessities they lacked, such as salt and iron. Salt is a Dietary mineral composed primarily of Sodium chloride that is essential for Animal life but toxic to most land plants Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 A few local Hindu craftsmen might provide such items as cooking utensils.

In the early 20th century, however, large areas fell into the hands of non-tribals, on account of improved transportation and communications. The twentieth century of the Common Era began on Around 1900, many regions were opened by the government to settlement through a scheme by which inward migrants received ownership of land free in return for cultivating it. Year 1900 ( MCM) was an exceptional Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar For tribal people, however, land was often viewed as a common resource, free to whoever needed it. By the time tribals accepted the necessity of obtaining formal land titles, they had lost the opportunity to lay claim to lands that might rightfully have been considered theirs. The colonial and post-independence regimes belatedly realized the necessity of protecting tribals from the predations of outsiders and prohibited the sale of tribal lands. Although an important loophole in the form of land leases was left open, tribes made some gains in the mid-twentieth century, and some land was returned to tribal peoples despite obstruction by local police and land officials.

In the 1970s, tribal peoples came again under intense land pressure, especially in central India. Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Migration into tribal lands increased dramatically, as tribal people lost title to their lands in many ways – lease, forfeiture from debts, or bribery of land registry officials. Other non-tribals simply squatted, or even lobbied governments to classify them as tribal to allow them to compete with the formerly established tribes. In any case, many tribal members became landless labourers in the 1960s and 1970s, and regions that a few years earlier had been the exclusive domain of tribes had an increasingly mixed population of tribals and non-tribals. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1970 ( MCMLXX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link shows full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Government efforts to evict nontribal members from illegal occupation have proceeded slowly; when evictions occur at all, those ejected are usually members of poor, lower castes.

Improved communications, roads with motorized traffic, and more frequent government intervention figured in the increased contact that tribal peoples had with outsiders. Commercial highways and cash crops frequently drew non-tribal people into remote areas. By the 1960s and 1970s, the resident nontribal shopkeeper was a permanent feature of many tribal villages. Since shopkeepers often sell goods on credit (demanding high interest), many tribal members have been drawn deeply into debt or mortgaged their land. Merchants also encourage tribals to grow cash crops (such as cotton or castor-oil plants), which increases tribal dependence on the market for basic necessities. Castor oil is a Vegetable oil obtained from the Castor bean (technically castor seed as the castor plant Ricinus communis, is not a member of Indebtedness is so extensive that although such transactions are illegal, traders sometimes 'sell' their debtors to other merchants, much like indentured peons.

The final blow for some tribes has come when nontribals, through political jockeying, have managed to gain legal tribal status, that is, to be listed as a Scheduled Tribe.

Tribes in the Himalayan foothills have not been as hard-pressed by the intrusions of non-tribals. Historically, their political status was always distinct from the rest of India. Until the British colonial period, there was little effective control by any of the empires centered in peninsular India; the region was populated by autonomous feuding tribes. The British, in efforts to protect the sensitive northeast frontier, followed a policy dubbed the "Inner Line"; nontribal people were allowed into the areas only with special permission. Postindependence governments have continued the policy, protecting the Himalayan tribes as part of the strategy to secure the border with China. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National

Government policies on forest reserves have affected tribal peoples profoundly. Government efforts to reserve forests have precipitated armed (if futile) resistance on the part of the tribal peoples involved. Intensive exploitation of forests has often meant allowing outsiders to cut large areas of trees (while the original tribal inhabitants were restricted from cutting), and ultimately replacing mixed forests capable of sustaining tribal life with single-product plantations. Nontribals have frequently bribed local officials to secure effective use of reserved forest lands.

The northern tribes have thus been sheltered from the kind of exploitation that those elsewhere in South Asia have suffered. In Arunachal Pradesh (formerly part of the North-East Frontier Agency), for example, tribal members control commerce and most lower-level administrative posts. Arunachal Pradesh (अरुणाचल प्रदेश   Aruṇācal Pradeś is the easternmost state of India North Eastern Frontier Agency was one of the British agencies in British India. Government construction projects in the region have provided tribes with a significant source of cash. Some tribes have made rapid progress through the education system (the role of early missionaries was significant in this regard). Instruction was begun in Assamese but was eventually changed to Hindi; by the early 1980s, English was taught at most levels. Northeastern tribal people have thus enjoyed a certain measure of social mobility.

Participation in Indian independence movement

There were tribal reform and rebellion movements during the period of the British Empire, some of which also participated in the Indian freedom struggle or attacked mission posts. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. [14] There were several Adivasis in the Indian independence movement including Khajya Naik, Bhima Naik, Jantya Bhil and Rehma Vasave. The term " Indian independence movement " is diffuse incorporating various national and regional campaigns agitations and efforts of both Nonviolent and Militant

List of rebellions against British rule

During the period of British rule, India saw the rebellions of several backward-castes, mainly tribals that revolted against British rule. These were:[15].

  1. Halba rebellion (1774-79)
  2. Chamka rebellion (1776-1787)[16]
  3. Chuar rebellion in Bengal (1795-1800)[17]
  4. Bhopalpatnam Struggle (1795)
  5. Khurda Rebellion in Orissa (1817)[18]
  6. Bhil rebellion (1822-1857)[19]
  7. Paralkot rebellion (1825)
  8. Tarapur rebellion (1842-54)
  9. Maria rebellion (1842-63)
  10. First Freedom Struggle (1856-57)
  11. Bhil rebellion, begun by Tantya Tope in Banswara (1858)[20]
  12. Koi revolt (1859)
  13. Gond rebellion, begun by Ramji Gond in Adilabad (1860)[21]
  14. Muria rebellion (1876)
  15. Rani rebellion (1878-82)
  16. Bhumkal (1910)

Some notable Scheduled Tribes

See also

References

  1. ^ Elst, Koenraad: Who is a Hindu (2001)
  2. ^ (P. The Cholanaikkans are one of the most primitive tribes in South India, numbering only 360 in 1991 The Warli or Varli are an Indian Scheduled Tribe. These Indigenous people live in Talukas of the Thane, Nasik Kisan Tribe in Orissa are found in Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj Sambalpur and Keonjhar The Kondha are indigenous tribal groups of India. Unlike other tribal groups of India the Dongria Kondh are accomplished horticulturists farming on the mountain Bonda is a typical South Indian snack Bonda comes in two major varieties Sweet and Spicy Among the 68 million citizens of India who are members of tribal groups, the religious concepts terminologies and practices are as varied as the hundreds of tribes This is a full list of Scheduled Tribes in India, as recognised in India 's Constitution a total of 645 distict tribes Scheduled Castes ("SC"s and Scheduled Tribes ("ST"s are Indian population groupings that are explicitly recognized by the Constitution of Castes are Hereditary systems of occupation, Endogamy, social culture, Social class, and Political power. C K Janu is the leader of the Adivasi Gothra Maha Sabha a social movement that has been pushing for land to be redistributed to landless adivasis and that grew out of the 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
  3. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
  4. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
  5. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
  6. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
  7. ^ (P. 4, The Story of Historic People of India-The Kolis)
  8. ^ Thomas Parkhill: The Forest Setting in Hindu Epics.
  9. ^ M. S. Golwalkar: Bunch of Thoughts, p. 479.
  10. ^ JAIN, Girilal: The Hindu Phenomenon. UBSPD, Delhi 1994. Eschmann, Kulke and Tripathi, eds. : Cult of Jagannath, p. 97. Elst 2001
  11. ^ Mahabharata (I. 31-54) (II. 37. 47; II. 44. 21) Elst 2001
  12. ^ Kautilya: The Arthashastra 9:2:13-20, Penguin edition, p. 685. Elst 2001
  13. ^ A. Van Exem: “The Mistake, reviewed after a century”, Sevartham 1991. Elst 2001
  14. ^ HEUZE, Gérard: Où Va l’Inde Moderne? L’Harmattan, Paris 1993. A. Tirkey: “Evangelization among the Uraons”, Indian Missiological Review, June 1997, esp. p. 30-32. Elst 2001
  15. ^ [http://www.chhattisgarhnris.com/chhattisgarh_heaven.htm "Tribal Protests and Rebellions']
  16. ^ Page 63 Tagore Without Illusions by Hitendra Mitra
  17. ^ Sameeksha Trust, P. 1229 Economic and Political Weekly
  18. ^ P. 4 “Freedom Movement in Khurda” Dr. Atul Chandra Pradhan
  19. ^ P. 111 The Freedom Struggle in Hyderabad: A Connected Account By Hyderabad (India : State)
  20. ^ P. 32 Social and Political Awakening Among the Tribals of Rajasthan By Gopi Nath Sharma
  21. ^ P. 420 Who's who of Freedom Struggle in Andhra Pradesh By Sarojini Regani

Further reading

External links

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