The Palestinian exodus (Arabic: الهجرة الفلسطينية al-Hijra al-Filasteeniya), referred to by most Palestinians and Arabs as the Nakba (Arabic: النكبة), meaning the "disaster", "catastrophe", or "cataclysm,"[1] refers to the creation of the Palestinian Arabs refugee problem during the last six months of the British Mandate of Palestine, the founding of the State of Israel, the First Arab-Israeli War and also during the period of the consolidation of the State of Israel. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn The Palestine Mandate, was a set of protocols or articles that formed a multilateral legal and administrative agreement For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. [2] As Benny Morris puts it:-
"Above all let me reiterate, the refugee problem was caused by attacks by Jewish forces on Arab villages and towns and by the inhabitants' fear of such attacks, compounded by expulsions, atrocities, and rumour of atrocities - and by the crucial Israeli Cabinet decision in June 1948 to bar a refugee return. "[3]
History
The history of the Palestinian exodus is closely tied to the events of the war in Palestine, which lasted from 1947 to 1949. Many factors played a role in bringing it about.
- For more information on the historical context, see Zionism, Palestinian nationalism, United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181, 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine, 1948 Arab-Israeli war. History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the Palestinian nationalism is a nationalist Ideology which calls for the creation of a Palestinian state in all or part of the former British Mandate The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine or United Nations General Assembly Resolution 181 was a plan approved by the General Assembly on November 29 The 1947-1948 Civil War in the Mandatory Palestine lasted from 30 November 1947 with the United Nations vote in favour of the termination of the British Mandate of Palestine
By 1951, the United Nations (UN) estimated 711,000 Palestinian refugees existed outside Israel,[4] with about one-quarter of the estimated 160,000 Arab Palestinians remaining in Israel as "internal refugees. The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security Internally displaced Palestinians is a term used to refer to Palestinians and their descendants who as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli war became Internally " Today, Palestinian refugees and their descendants are estimated to number over 4 million people. [5]
Historians have argued over the causes of the Palestinian exodus. In early decades following the exodus, two diametrically opposed schools of analysis could be distinguished:[6] ‘Israel claims that the Palestinian Arabs left because they were ordered to, and deliberately incited into panic, by their own leaders who wanted the field cleared for the 1948 war’, while ‘The Arabs charge that their people were evicted at bayonet-point and by panic deliberately incited by the Zionists. ’ With the opening up of Archival sources in the West and Israel in particular a "New Historiography" has been written that is broadly in line with the original "Arab" Historiography. As with all new evidence presented it has taken time for this "alternative explanation" to be accepted. With the opening of the Protocols of the Israel's Cabinet Meetings and the declassification of the Haganah Archive in Tel Aviv along with the IDF and Israeli Defence Ministry Archive in Givatayim[7] a greater insight has been gained into the events leading up to the creation of Israel and the events surrounding it birth. The emphasis on the psychological component wherein panic, fear or hysteria played their part along with expulsions and atrocities causing the Palestinian exodus,[8][9] and since the 1980s some Israeli "New Historians" have presented another viewpoint suggesting around half of the Palestinians of the exodus were purposedly expelled by Israeli army whereas this was not an organised policy[10][11]. The New Historians are a loosely-defined group of Israeli historians who have published histories of expulsions of Palestinians by Israel in 1948 expropriations of Palestinian property However Walid Khalidi and other Palestinian historians, supported by Ilan Pappe defend the thesis these expulsions and even the whole exodus were part of a deliberate plan. [12]
A clear indication that the Arab league had tried to halt the flow of refugees is gained from the UN records of the Report by the UN Mediator[13] (Count Folke Bernadotte) and the Report of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation on the el Dawaymeh massacre of 29 October 1948. UNTSO is an acronym for United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, an organization founded on 29 May 1948 for Peacekeeping in the Middle East. On October 28 1948, the Arab town Al-Dawayima (also spelt Dawaymeh was conquered during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war by the 89th Commando Battalion which
"The reason why so little is known about this massacre which, in many respects, was more brutal than the Deir Yassin massacre, is because the Arab Legion feared that if the news was allowed to spread, it would have the same effect on the moral of the peasantry that Deir Yassin had, namely to cause another flow of Arab refugees. The Deir Yassin massacre was the killing of between 107 and 120 villagers the estimate generally accepted by scholars during and possibly after the battle at the village of The Arab Legion ( al-Jaysh al-Arabī) was the regular army of Transjordan and then Jordan in the early part of the 20th Century "[14]
The initial exodus and the current situation of Palestinian refugees is a contentious topic of high importance to all parties in the Arab-Israeli conflict.
First Phase of the Exodus, December 1947 - March 1948
· In the first few months of the civil war the climate in the Mandate of Palestine became volatile, although throughout this period both Arab and Jewish leaders tried to limit hostilities between Jews and Arabs. Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn The term Palestine and the related term Palestinian have several overlapping (and occasionally contradictory definitions Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn Palestinian diaspora ( الشتات, al-shatat) is a term used to describe Palestinians living outside of historic Palestine - an area Name There are differences of opinion as to what the Palestinian territories should be called Palestinian Refugee camps were established after the 1948 Arab-Israeli War to accommodate Palestinian refugees who fled from the war The Gaza Strip is located in the Middle East (at 31 25 N 34 20 E and consists of around 360sq km The Gaza Strip (قطاع غزة, רצועת עזה Retzu'at 'Azza) is a coastal strip of land along the Mediterranean Sea, bordering Egypt on the south-west Geography of the Best Wank Location Middle East west of Jordan Geographic coordinates: Map references Middle East The West Bank (الضفة الغربية, הגדה המערבית Hagadah Hamaaravit) also referred to in Israel as " Judea and Samaria The 16 Governorates of the West Bank and Gaza Strip are divided into 16 electoral Districts ( Aqdya, singular - Qadaa) After the signing of the Oslo Accords, the Palestinian territories were divided into three areas (Area A Area B and Area C and 16 Governorates under the jurisdiction The following is a list of cities in Palestinian National Authority administrated areas, although depending on which particular area each locality is located The list of Arab localities in Israel includes all population centers with a 50% or higher Arab population in the State of Israel. East Jerusalem refers to the part of Jerusalem captured by Jordan in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, and subsequently by Israel in the 1967 Six-Day War. Ḥamas (ar حركة حماس acronym ar حركة المقاومة The Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO) (منظمة التحرير الفلسطينية or Munazzamat al-Tahrir al-Filastiniyyah) is a political and paramilitary The Palestinian National Council (PNC is the legislative body of the Palestine Liberation Organization and elects its Executive Committee which assumes leadership of the The Palestinian Legislative Council (sometimes referred to as the Palestinan Parliament) the Legislature of the Palestinian Authority, is a Unicameral The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP) ( Arabic: الجبهة الشعبية لتحرير فلسطين al-Jabhah al-Sha`biyyah li-Tahrīr A political party is a political organization subscribing to a certain Ideology or formed around very special issues with the aim to participate in power usually The Palestinian flag ( علم فلسطين) was originally designed by Sharif Hussein for the Arab revolt against the Ottoman Empire in 1916 The Palestinian Christians are Palestinians who follow Christianity. Islam in Israel and Palestinian territories includes the Muslims of Israel, where they constitute 16% of the population those who comprise 75% of the population of Church_of_the_nativity_bethjpg|thumb|200px|View of The Church of the Nativity from Manger Square]]The Church of the Nativity ( كنيسة المهد) in Bethlehem The Church of the Holy Sepulchre (Sanctum Sepulchrum also called the Church of the Resurrection, ( Greek: Ναός της Αναστάσεως Naos tis Anastaseos This article refers to the basilica in Nazareth For information on the church associated with the Blagoveschenskaya Tower in Russia see Kremlin towers or Cathedral Rachel's Tomb ( Hebrew: קבר רחל Arabic: translit Qubbat Rakhil, trans Al-Aqsa Mosque ( Arabic:المسجد الاقصى /æl'mæsdʒɪd æl'ɑqsˁɑ/ {{Audio|ArAqsaMosque The Dome of the Rock ( Arabic: مسجد قبة الصخرة translit The Mosque of Omar (مسجد عمر is the oldest and only Mosque in the city of Bethlehem, located in Manger Square, near the Church of the The Cave of the Patriarchs ( Hebrew: מערת המכפלה Me'arat HaMachpela, Trans Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn Palestinian art is a term used to refer to Paintings Posters Installation art and other visual media produced by Palestinian artists Palestinian costumes are the traditional Clothing worn by Palestinians. Palestinian cinema is relatively young in comparison to Arab cinema as a whole many Palestinian movies are made with European and Israeli funding and support Palestinian cuisine consists of foods from or commonly eaten by the Arabs of historical Palestine — which includes those living in the Palestinian territories Dabke ( Arabic: ar دبكة also transliterated as debke, dabka, and dabkeh) is the traditional Folk Palestinian pottery refers to Pottery produced in Palestine throughout the ages and pottery produced by modern-day Palestinians. Palestinian handicrafts are Handicrafts produced by Palestinian people. Palestinian Arabic is a Levantine Arabic dialect subgroup spoken by Palestinians and Arab Israelis. Palestinian literature refers to the Arabic language novels short stories and poems produced by Palestinians. Palestinian music ( موسيقى فلسطينية) is one of many regional sub-genres of Arabic music. The following is a list of prominent Palestinians. Academic figures Rami Abuhabsah, Biologist Nadia Hany Abu-Assad (born 11 October 1961 (هاني أبو أسعد is a Dutch - Palestinian film director Ibrahim Abu-Lughod (إبراهيم أبو لغد February 15, 1929 — May 23, 2001) was a Palestinian (later American Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al-Qudwa al-Husseini ( Arabic: محمد عبد الرؤوف عرفات القدوة الحسيني (August 24 1929 – November 11 Sheikh Ahmed Ismail Yassin (1937 – March 22 2004 ( Arabic: ar الشيخ أحمد ياسين was the co-founder with Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi, of Hamas Dr Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi (عبدالعزيز الرنتيسي ( October 23, 1947 – was the co-founder of the militant Palestinian Islamist organization Ismail Haniyeh ( Arabic: إسماعيل هنية sometimes transliterated as Ismail Haniya or Ismail Haniyah) (born January 1963 is a Mohammad Bakri ( 1953 -) (محمد بكري מוחמד בכרי also spelled Mohammed or Muhammad) is an Arab actor and director with Israeli Rim Banna is a Palestinian singer Composer and Arranger that is well-known for her modern interpretations of traditional folk songs Tawfiq Canaan (24 September 1882 – 15 January 1964 was a Physician and pioneer in the field of Medicine in Palestine, also well-known for being one of Mahmoud Darwish ( 13 March 1941 &ndash 9 August 2008) was a respected Palestinian poet and author who won numerous awards for Imil (Emile Shukri Habibi (إميل حبيبي אמיל חביבי 21 January 1922 – 2 May 1996) was a Palestinian - Nathalie Handal (نتالي حنظل born July 29, 1969) is a Poet, Writer, Playwright and literary researcher of Middle Mohammad Amin al-Husayni (محمد أمين الحسيني properly transliterated al-Husseini, 1895 / 1897 - July 4, 1974) a member Faisal Abdel Qader Al-Husseini (فيصل عبدالقادر الحسيني ( July 17, 1940 – May 31, 2001) was a Palestinian politician Abd al-Qadir al-Husayni (عبد القادر الحسيني also spelled Abd al-Qader al-Husseini) (1907-1948 was a Palestinian nationalist and fighter who Ghassan Kanafani (غسان كنفاني April 9, 1936 in Akka, Palestine – July 8, 1972 in Beirut, Lebanon Ghada Karmi (غادة كرمي) (1939- is a Palestinian doctor of medicine author and academic Leila Khaled (ليلى خالد laylà ẖālid; born April 9, 1944) is a member of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP Rashid Khalidi (born 1950 an American historian of the Middle East, is the Edward Said Professor of Arab Studies at Columbia University, and director Walid Khalidi (وليد خالدي born in 1925 in Jerusalem) is an Oxford University educated Palestinian historian who has written extensively on the Samih al-Qasim ( سميح القاسم; b 1939 is a Palestinian Druze poet and citizen of Israel whose Arabic poetry is well-known Edward Wadie Saïd MRSL ( إدوارد وديع سعيد,; 1 November 1935 &ndash 25 September Khalil al-Sakakini ( خليل السكاكيني; January 23, 1878 - August 13, 1953) was a Palestinian Christian, Elia Suleiman (إيليا سليمان born July 28, 1960 in Nazareth) is a Palestinian-Israeli film director and Actor Khalil Ibrahim al-Wazir ( خليل الوزير) also known by his kunya " Abu Jihad " (Arabic أبو جهاد — Sheikh Ahmed Ismail Yassin (1937 – March 22 2004 ( Arabic: ar الشيخ أحمد ياسين was the co-founder with Abdel Aziz al-Rantissi, of Hamas May Ziade (née Marie, with Ziade also written Ziadé or Ziadeh) ( مي زيادة) ( February 11 1886. The Palestine Mandate, was a set of protocols or articles that formed a multilateral legal and administrative agreement PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn [15] According to historian Benny Morris, the period was marked by Palestinian Arab initiatives and Jewish reprisals. Benny Morris (born 1948 is an Israeli historian identified with the New Historians school a group of Historians who dispute the traditional Israeli [16] On the other hand, Simha Flapan points out a pattern in which terrorist attacks by Irgun and Lehi resulted in Arab retaliations and then 'the Haganah - while always condemning the actions of Irgun and Lehi - joined in with an inflaming counter-retaliation'. Simha Flapan (1911&ndash1987 was an Israeli historian and politician probably best known for his book The Birth of Israel Myths And Realities, published in the Irgun (ארגון shorthand for HaIrgun HaTzva'i HaLe'umi BeEretz Yisra'el, he הארגון הצבאי הלאומי בארץ ישראל "National Military Organization Lehi ('lɛxi Hebrew acronym for Lohamei Herut Israel, "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel" לח"י - לוחמי חירות Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine [17] Typically the Jewish reprisals were directed against villages and neighborhoods from which attacks against Jews had allegedly originated,[18] were more damaging than the provoking attack and included killing of armed and unarmed men, destruction of houses and sometimes expulsion of inhabitants. [19] The Zionist groups of Irgun and Lehi reverted to their 1937-1939 strategy of placing bombs in crowded places such as bus stops, shopping centres and markets. Irgun (ארגון shorthand for HaIrgun HaTzva'i HaLe'umi BeEretz Yisra'el, he הארגון הצבאי הלאומי בארץ ישראל "National Military Organization Lehi ('lɛxi Hebrew acronym for Lohamei Herut Israel, "Fighters for the Freedom of Israel" לח"י - לוחמי חירות Their attacks on British forces reduced British troops' ability and willingness to protect Jewish traffic. [20] General conditions deteriorated: the economic situation became unstable and unemployment grew. [21] Rumours spread that the Husaynis were planning to bring in bands of fellahin (peasant, farmers) to take over the towns. Husayni (also spelled Husseini) is the name of a prominent Palestinian clan formerly based in Jerusalem. Fellah (فلاح (plural Fellahin, فلاحين is a Peasant, farmer or agricultural laborer in the Middle East. [22] Some Palestinian Arab leaders sent their families abroad. The Arab Liberation Army embarked on a systematic evacuation of non-combatants from several frontier villages in order to turn them into military strongholds. The Arab Liberation Army ( Jaysh al-Inqadh al-Arabi) was an army of volunteers from Arab countries led by Fawzi al-Qawuqji. [23] Arab depopulation occurred most in villages close to Jewish settlements and in vulnerable neighborhoods in Haifa, Jaffa and West-Jerusalem. [24] The poor inhabitants of these neighborhoods generally fled to other parts of the city. Many rich inhabitants fled further away, most of them expecting to return when the troubles were over. [25] By the end of March 1948 thirty villages were depopulated,[26] and around 100,000 Palestinian Arabs had fled to Arab parts of Palestine, such as Nazareth, Nablus and Bethlehem, or had left the country altogether,[27] to Transjordan or Egypt. The Emirate of Transjordan ( Arabic: ar إمارة شرق الأردن) was a former Ottoman territory incorporated into the British Mandate of Palestine This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Other sources speak of 30,000 Palestinian Arabs. [28] Many of these were Palestinian Arab leaders, middle and upper-class Palestinian Arab families from urban areas. Around 22 March the Arab governments agreed that their consulates in Palestine would only issues visas to old people, women and children and the sick. Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. [29] On 29-30 March the Haganah Intelligence Service (HIS) reported that 'the AHC was no longer approving exit permits for fear of [causing] panic in the country'. Events 240 BC - 1st recorded Perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. The Arab Higher Committee was the central political organ of the Arab community of Palestine, established in 1936 [30]
While expulsion of the Palestinians had been contemplated by some Zionists from the 1890s (see Zionist quotes), during this period there was no official Yishuv policy favoring expulsion and Jewish leaders anticipated that the new Jewish state would have a sizable Arab minority. Yishuv (ישוב literally "settlement" or Ha-Yishuv (the Yishuv הישוב or the full term הישוב היהודי בארץ ישראל Hayishuv Hayehudi The Haganah was instructed to avoid spreading the conflagration by indiscriminate attacks and to avoid provoking British intervention. [31] On 18 December, 1947 the Haganah approved an aggressive defense strategy, which in practice meant 'a limited implementation of "Plan May" (Tochnit Mai or Tochnit Gimel), which, produced in May 1946, was the Haganah master plan for the defence of the Yishuv in the event of the outbreak of new troubles… The plan included provision, in extremis, for "destroying Arab transport" in Palestine, and blowing up houses used by Arab terrorists and expelling their inhabitants. Events 218 BC - Second Punic War: Battle of the Trebia - Hannibal 's Carthaginian forces defeat those of the [32] In early January the Haganah adopted Operation Zarzir, a scheme to assassinate leaders affiliated to Amin al-Husayni, placing the blame on other Arab leaders, but in practice few resources were devoted to the project and the only attempted killing was of Nimr al Khatib. Mohammad Amin al-Husayni (محمد أمين الحسيني properly transliterated al-Husseini, 1895 / 1897 - July 4, 1974) a member Muhammad Nimr al-Khatib was a leader of the Muslim Brotherhood and a pro- Husayni head of the Arab Committee in Haifa during the 1948 Arab-Israeli [33]
The only authorised expulsion at this time took place at Qisarya, south of Haifa, where Palestinian Arabs were evicted and their houses destroyed on 19 February - 20 February 1948. Caesarea (קיסריה Qesarya قيسارية pronounced Kaysaria) is a town in Israel on the outskirts of Caesarea Maritima, the ancient port Events 197 - Roman Emperor Septimius Severus defeats usurper Clodius Albinus in the Battle of Lugdunum Events 1472 - Orkney and Shetland are left by Norway to Scotland, due to a Dowry payment Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [34] In attacks that were not authorised in advance several communities were expelled by the Haganah and several others were chased away by the Irgun. [35]
According to Ilan Pappé the Zionists organised a campaign of threats,[36] consisting of the distribution of threatening leaflets, 'violent reconnaissance' and, after the arrival of mortars, the shelling of Arab villages and neighborhoods. Ilan Pappé ( אילן פפה, born 1954) is a professor of history at the University of Exeter. [37] The idea of 'violent reconnaissance' was to enter a defenceless village at night, fire at everyone who dared leave his or her house and leave after a few hours. [38] Pappé also notes that the Haganah shifted its policy from retaliation through excessive retaliation to offensive initiatives. [39] During the 'long seminar', a meeting of Ben-Gurion with his chief advisors in January 1948, the departure point was that it was desirable to 'transfer' as many Arabs as possible out of Jewish territory, and the discussion focussed mainly on the implementation. [40] The experiences in a number of attacks in February 1948, notably those on Qisarya and Sa'sa', were used in the development of a plan, detailing how enemy population centers should be handled. Caesarea (קיסריה Qesarya قيسارية pronounced Kaysaria) is a town in Israel on the outskirts of Caesarea Maritima, the ancient port Sa'sa' (سعسع was a Palestinian village located 12 kilometres northwest of Safed that was depopulated by Israeli forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli Plan Dalet, or Plan D, ( Hebrew: תוכנית ד' Tokhnit dalet; Dalet is the fourth letter of the Hebrew alphabet, [41] According to Pappé plan Dalet was the master plan for the expulsion of the Palestinians. Plan Dalet, or Plan D, ( Hebrew: תוכנית ד' Tokhnit dalet; Dalet is the fourth letter of the Hebrew alphabet, [42]
Palestinian belligerency in these first few months was 'disorganised, sporadic and localised and for months remained chaotic and uncoordinated, if not undirected'. [43] Husayni lacked the resources to mount a full-scale assault on the Yishuv and restricted himself to sanctioning minor attacks and to tightening the economic boycott. Mohammad Amin al-Husayni (محمد أمين الحسيني properly transliterated al-Husseini, 1895 / 1897 - July 4, 1974) a member [44] The British claimed that Arab rioting might well have subsided had the Jews not retaliated with firearms. [45]
Overall Morris concludes that the 'Arab evacuees from the towns and villages left largely because of Jewish - Haganah, IZL or LHI - attacks or fear of impending attack' but that only 'an extremely small, almost insignificant number of the refugees during this early period left because of Haganah or IZL or LHI expulsion orders or forceful "advice" to that effect'. [46] In this sense, Glazer[47] quotes the testimony of Count Bernadotte, the UN mediator in Palestine, who reported that "the exodus of the Palestinian Arabs resulted from panic created by fighting in their communities, by rumours concerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, or expulsion. Almost the whole of the Arab population fled or was expelled from the area under Jewish occupation". [48][49]
See also: List of massacres committed during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war
Second Phase of the Exodus, April 1948 - June 1948
Benny Morris maintains that from April 1948 Ben-Gurion was a “transferist”; although Ben-Gurion gave no explicit orders, Ben-Gurion projected a “message of transfer", and that a “consensus of transfer” was created. ". Also Benny Morris upholds that Ben-Gurion was correct in expelling the “Arab” population of Palestine on the grounds that “Without the uprooting of the Palestinians, a Jewish state would not have arisen here. "[50]
By May 1, 1948, two weeks before the Israeli Declaration of Independence, nearly 175,000 Palestinians (appoximately 25%) had already fled. Events 305 - Diocletian and Maximian retire from the office of Roman Emperor. Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Israeli Declaration of Independence (הכרזת העצמאות Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or מגילת העצמאות Megilat HaAtzma'ut) made on 14 May [51]
The fighting in these months was concentrated in the Jerusalem - Tel Aviv area, where consequently, most depopulations took place. Jerusalem (יְרוּשָׁלַיִם, he-Latn Yerushaláyim; Arabic: ar القُدس, ar-Latn al-Quds) is the Tel Aviv-Yafo (תֵּל ־אָבִיב-יָפוֹ تل أبيب Tal ʾAbīb) (usually Tel Aviv) is the second-largest city in Israel The Deir Yassin massacre in early April, and the exaggerated rumours that followed it, helped spread fear and panic among the Palestinians. The Deir Yassin massacre was the killing of between 107 and 120 villagers the estimate generally accepted by scholars during and possibly after the battle at the village of [52]
Even so, Palestinians fled the city of Haifa en masse, in one of the most notable flights of this stage. Haifa (חֵיפָה; حَيْفَا) is the largest City in Northern Israel, and the third-largest city in the country with Historian Efraim Karsh writes that not only had half of the Arab community in Haifa community fled the city before the final battle was joined in late April 1948, but another 5,000-15,000 left apparently voluntarily during the fighting while the rest, some 15,000-25,000, were ordered to leave, almost certainly on the instructions of the Arab Higher Committee. Efraim Karsh (אפרים קארש born 1953 is Professor and Head of Mediterranean Studies at King's College London. Karsh concludes that there was no Jewish grand design to force this departure, nor was there a psychological 'blitz', but that on the contrary, both the Haifa Jewish leadership, including Mayor Shabtai Levy, and the Hagana went to great lengths to convince the Arabs to stay, to no avail. Shabtai Levy (1876-1956 was the first Jewish Mayor of Haifa. He held office from 1941 to 1951 [53][54] However Efraim Karsh based his observations on a "British Police Report" of the 26 April sent after the British Forces had evacuated from Haifa and the Jewish forces had taken over the Port of Haifa and the Palestinian Population had already fled. The British Report of 22 April at the height of the fight for Haifa portrays a different picture. [55]
According to Morris "The Haganah mortar attacks of 21-22 April [on Haifa] were primarily designed to break Arab morale in order to bring about a swift collapse of resistance and speedy surrender. […] But clearly the offensive, and especially the mortaring, precipitated the exodus. The three inch mortars ‘opened up on the market square [where there was] a great crowd […] a great panic took hold. The multitude burst into the port, pushed aside the policemen, charged the boats and began to flee the town’, as the official Haganah history later put it". [56] According to Pappé [57] this mortar barrage was deliberately aimed at civilians to precipitate their flight from Haifa.
The Haganah broadcast a warning to Arabs in Haifa on 21 April: 'that unless they sent away "infiltrated dissidents" they would be advised to evacuate all women and children, because they would be strongly attacked from now on'. Events 753 BC - Romulus and Remus found Rome ( traditional date) [58]
Commenting on the use of 'psychological warfare broadcasts' and military tactics in Haifa, Benny Morris writes:
Throughout the Haganah made effective use of Arabic language broadcasts and loudspeaker vans. Benny Morris (born 1948 is an Israeli historian identified with the New Historians school a group of Historians who dispute the traditional Israeli Haganah Radio announced that 'the day of judgement had arrived' and called on inhabitants to 'kick out the foreign criminals' and to 'move away from every house and street, from every neighbourhood occupied by foreign criminals'. The Haganah broadcasts called on the populace to 'evacuate the women, the children and the old immediately, and send them to a safe haven'… Jewish tactics in the battle were designed to stun and quickly overpower opposition; demoralisation was a primary aim. It was deemed just as important to the outcome as the physical destruction of the Arab units. The mortar barrages and the psychological warfare broadcasts and announcements, and the tactics employed by the infantry companies, advancing from house to house, were all geared to this goal. The orders of Carmeli's 22nd Battalion were 'to kill every [adult male] Arab encountered' and to set alight with fire-bombs 'all objectives that can be set alight. I am sending you posters in Arabic; disperse on route'. [59]
By mid-May 4000 Arabs remained in Haifa. These were concentrated in Wadi Nisnas in accordance with Plan D whilst the systematic destruction of Arab housing in certain areas, which had been planned before the War, was implemented by Haifa's Technical and Urban Development departments in cooperation with the IDF's city commander Ya'akov Lublini. [60]
According to Glazer (1980, p. 111), from May 15, 1948 onwards, expulsion of Palestinians became a regular practice. Avnery (1971), explaining the Zionist rationale, says,
I believe that during this phase, the eviction of Arab civilians had become an aim of David Ben-Gurion and his government …. UN opinion could very well be disregarded. Peace with the Arabs seemed out of the question, considering the extreme nature of the Arab propaganda. In this situation, it was easy for people like Ben-Gurion to believe the capture of uninhabited territory was both necessary for security reasons and desirable for the homogeneity of the new Hebrew state. [61]
Edgar O'Ballance, a military historian, adds,
Israeli vans with loudspeakers drove through the streets ordering all the inhabitants to evacuate immediately, and such as were reluctant to leave were forcibly ejected from their homes by the triumphant Israelis whose policy was now openly one of clearing out all the Arab civil population before them …. From the surrounding villages and hamlets, during the next two or three days, all the inhabitants were uprooted and set off on the road to Ramallah…. No longer was there any "reasonable persuasion". Bluntly, the Arab inhabitants were ejected and forced to flee into Arab territory…. Wherever the Israeli troops advanced into Arab country the Arab population was bulldozed out in front of them. [62]
After the fall of Haifa the villages on the slopes of Mount Carmel had been harassing the Jewish traffic on the main road to Haifa. Mount Carmel (הר הכרמל Karem El/Har Ha'Karmel; Arabic Kurmul/Jabal Mar Elyas) is a coastal Mountain range in northern Israel A Decision was made on 9 May 1948 to expel or subdue the villages of Kafr Saba, al-Tira, Qaqun, Qalansuwa and Tantura[63] On the 11 May 1948 Ben-Gurion convened the “Consultancy” the outcome of the meeting is confirmed in a letter to commanders of the Haganah Brigades telling them that the Arab legion's offensive should not distract their troops from the principle tasks:
"‘the cleansing of Palestine remained the prime objective of Plan Dalet” [64]
The attention of the commanders of the Alexandroni Brigade was turned to reducing the Mount Carmel pocket. The Arab Legion ( al-Jaysh al-Arabī) was the regular army of Transjordan and then Jordan in the early part of the 20th Century Plan Dalet, or Plan D, ( Hebrew: תוכנית ד' Tokhnit dalet; Dalet is the fourth letter of the Hebrew alphabet, Mount Carmel (הר הכרמל Karem El/Har Ha'Karmel; Arabic Kurmul/Jabal Mar Elyas) is a coastal Mountain range in northern Israel Tantura being on the coast gave the Carmel villages’ access to the outside world and so was chosen as the point to surround the Carmel villages as a part of the Coastal Clearing offensive operation in the beginning of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. On the night of 22-23 May 1948 1 week and 1 day after the declaration of Independence of the State of Israel the coastal village of Tantura was attacked and occupied by the 33rd Battalion of the Alexandroni Brigade of the Haganah. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The Alexandroni Brigade ( 3rd Brigade) is an Israel Defense Forces brigade that fought in the 1948 Arab-Israeli war. Haganah ( Hebrew: "The Defense" ההגנה was a Jewish Paramilitary organization in what was then the British Mandate of Palestine The village of Tantura was not given the option of surrender and the initial report spoke of dozens of villagers killed with 300 adult male prisoners and 200 women and children[65] Many of the villages fled to the Fureidis (previously captured) and to Arab held territory. The Captured women of Tantura were moved to Fureidis and on the 31st May Brechor Shitrit the Minister of Minority Affairs of the provisional Government of Israel, sought permission to expel the refugee women of Tantura from Fureidis as the amount of refugees in Fureidis was causing problems of overcrowding and sanitation. [66]
By the estimates of Morris, 250,000 to 300,000 Palestinians left Israel during this stage. [67] Keesing's Contemporary Archives in London place the total number of refugees before Israel's independence at 300,000. [68]
According to a report from the military intelligence SHAI of the Haganah entitled "The emigration of Palestinian Arabs in the period 1/12/1947-1/6/1948", dated 30 June 1948 affirms that:
At least 55% of the total of the exodus was caused by our (Haganah/IDF) operations. " To this figure, the report’s compilers add the operations of the Irgun and Lehi, which "directly (caused) some 15%… of the emigration". A further 2% was attributed to explicit expulsion orders issued by Israeli troops, and 1% to their psychological warfare. This leads to a figure of 73% for departures caused directly by the Israelis. In addition, the report attributes 22% of the departures to "fears" and "a crisis of confidence" affecting the Palestinian population. As for Arab calls for flight, these were reckoned to be significant in only 5% of cases…[69][70][71]
Third Phase of the Exodus, July-October 1948
Israeli operations labeled Dani and Dekel that broke the truce was the start of the third phase of expulsions. The largest single expulsion of the war began in Lydda and Ramla July 14 when 60,000 inhabitants (nearly 10% of the whole exodus) of the two cities were forcibly expelled on the orders of Ben-Gurion and Yitzhak Rabin. Lod (לוֹד اَلْلُدّْ al-Ludd; Greco-Latin Lydda) is a mixed Arab - Jewish city about 15 km southeast of Tel Aviv in Ramla (רַמְלָה Ramlāh; الرملة also Ramle and sometimes Rama) is a city in central Israel with a mixed Arab and Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France.
According to Flapan (1987, pp. 13-14) in Ben-Gurion's view Ramlah and Lydda constituted a special danger because their proximity might encourage cooperation between the Egyptian army, which had started its attack on Kibbutz Negbah, near Ramlah, and the Arab Legion, which had taken the Lydda police station. However the author considers that, Operation Dani, by which the two towns were seized, revealed that no such cooperation existed. Operation Danny (or Operation Dani, Mivtza Dani in Hebrew) was an Israeli operation carried out between the first and second truce of the
In the opinion of Flapan, "in Lydda, the exodus took place on foot. In Ramlah, the IDF provided buses and trucks. Originally, all males had been rounded up and enclosed in a compound, but after some shooting was heard, and construed by Ben-Gurion to be the beginning of an Arab Legion counteroffensive, he stopped the arrests and ordered the speedy eviction of all the Arabs, including women, children, and the elderly". [72] In explanation, Flapan cites that Ben-Gurion said that "those who made war on us bear responsibility after their defeat". [73]
Rabin wrote in his memoirs:
- What would they do with the 50,000 civilians in the two cities … Not even Ben-Gurion could offer a solution, and during the discussion at operation headquarters, he remained silent, as was his habit in such situations. Clearly, we could not leave [Lydda's] hostile and armed populace in our rear, where it could endanger the supply route [to the troops who were] advancing eastward. … Allon repeated the question: What is to be done with the population? Ben-Gurion waved his hand in a gesture that said: Drive them out! … 'Driving out' is a term with a harsh ring … Psychologically, this was one of the most difficult actions we undertook. The population of [Lydda] did not leave willingly. There was no way of avoiding the use of force and warning shots in order to make the inhabitants march the 10 to 15 miles to the point where they met up with the legion. (Soldier of Peace, p. 140-141)
Flapan maintains that events in Nazareth, although ending differently, point to the existence of a definite pattern of expulsion. On 16 July, three days after the Lydda and Ramlah evictions, the city of Nazareth surrendered to the IDF. The officer in command, a Canadian Jew named Ben Dunkelman, had signed the surrender agreement on behalf of the Israeli army along with Chaim Laskov (then a brigadier general, later IDF chief of staff). Benjamin (Ben Dunkelman (1913 &ndash June 11 1997) was a Canadian Jew who served in the Canadian Army during the Second World War Haim Laskov (1919&ndash1983 was an Israeli public figure and the fifth Chief of Staff of the Israel Defense Forces. The agreement assured the civilians that they would not be harmed, but the next day, Laskov handed Dunkelman an order to evacuate the population. [74][75]
Additionally, widespread looting and several cases of rape[76] took place during the evacuation. In total, about 100,000 Palestinians became refugees in this stage according to Morris. [77]
Fourth Phase of the Exodus, October 1948 - March 1949
This period of the exodus was characterized by Israeli military accomplishments; Operation Yoav, in October, this cleared the road to the Negev, culminating in the capture of Beersheba; Operation Hiram, at the end of October, resulted in the capture of the Upper Galilee; Operation Horev in December 1948 and Operation Uvda in March 1949, completed the capture of the Negev (the Negev had been allotted to the Jewish State by the United Nations) these operations were met with resistance from the Palestinian Arabs who were to become refugees. Beersheba (בְּאֵר שֶׁבַע Be'er Sheva, بئر السبع, Birüssebi is the largest City in the Negev desert of southern Operation Hiram, possibly also known as the Battle of Sa'sa', was a military operation conducted by the Israel Defence Force (IDF during the 1948 The Upper Galilee is a mountainous area in northern Israel and southern Lebanon, its borders are the Litani river in the north the Mediterranean Sea During the Israeli War of Independence in October 1948 Operation Horev was a wide scale attack against the Egyptian army in the Western Negev. Operation Ovda (מבצע עובדה Mivtza Uvda) was an operation conducted by the Israel Defense Forces during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, from March The Israeli military activities were confined to the Galilee and the sparsely populated Negev desert. "Galil" redirects here For the weapon see IMI Galil. Galilee (הגליל ha-Galil, lit the province, The Negev (נֶגֶב Tiberian vocalization: Néḡeḇ) is the Desert region of southern Israel. It was clear to the villages in the Galilee, that if they left, return was far from imminent. Therefore far fewer villages were spontaneously depopulated than previously. Most of the Palestinian exodus was due to a clear, direct cause: expulsion and deliberate harassment, as Morris writes 'commanders were clearly bent on driving out the population in the area they were conquering'. [78]
During Operation Hiram in the upper Galilee, Israeli military commanders received the order: 'Do all you can to immediately and quickly purge the conquered territories of all hostile elements in accordance with the orders issued. The residents should be helped to leave the areas that have been conquered'. (October 31, 1948, Moshe Carmel) The UN's acting Mediator, Ralph Bunche, reported that United Nations Observers had recorded extensive looting of villages in Galilee by Israeli forces, who carried away goats, sheep and mules. Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Moshe Carmel (משה כרמל born 17 January 1911, died August 14 2003) was an Israeli soldier and politician Dr Ralph Johnson Bunche ( August 7, 1903 &ndash December 9, 1971) was an American Political scientist and Diplomat This looting, United Nations Observers report, appeared to have been systematic as army trucks were used for transportation. The situation, states the report, created a new influx of refugees into Lebanon. Israeli forces, he stated, have occupied the area in Galilee formerly occupied by Kaukji's forces, and have crossed the Lebanese frontier. Bunche goes on to say "that Israeli forces now hold positions inside the south-east corner of Lebanon, involving some fifteen Lebanese villages which are occupied by small Israeli detachments". [79]
According to Morris[80] altogether 200,000-230,000 Palestinians left in this stage. According to New Historian Ilan Pappé, "In a matter of seven months, five hundred and thirty one villages were destroyed and eleven urban neighborhoods emptied […] The mass expulsion was accompanied by massacres, rape and [the] imprisonment of men […] in labor camps for periods [of] over a year". The New Historians are a loosely-defined group of Israeli historians who have published histories of expulsions of Palestinians by Israel in 1948 expropriations of Palestinian property Ilan Pappé ( אילן פפה, born 1954) is a professor of history at the University of Exeter. [81]
Fifth Phase of the Exodus; Consolidation of Israel.
On 30 May 1948 Yossef Weitz, head of the Settlement Department of the Jewish National Fund (JNF) recorded in his Diary:
"We have begun the operation of cleansing, removing the rubble and preparing the villages for cultivation and settlement. Some of these will become parks"[82]
Immediately after the Arab-Israeli conflict, Israel started on a process of Nation building with General elections held in January 1949. Chaim Weizmann was installed as Israel's first President and Ben-Gurion as head of the Mapai party attained the position he had held in the provisional Government of Israel that of Prime minister of Israel. Chaim Azriel Weizmann ( Hebrew: חיים עזריאל ויצמן – November 27, 1874 &ndash November 9, 1952) was a Zionist for the town in Mozambique see Mapai Mozambique Mapai (מפא"י an acronym for Mifleget Poalei Eretz Yisrael (מפלגת Ben-Gurion emphatically rejected the return of refugees in the Israeli Cabinet decision of June 1948 reiterated in a letter to the UN of 2 August 1949 containing the Text of a statement made by Moshe Sharett on 1 August 1948[83]
The village of Kafr Bir'im was entered by IDF forces on October 31, 1948 during Operation Hiram. Moshe Sharett (משה שרת born Moshe Shertok (Hebrew משה שרתוק on 15 October 1894, died 7 July 1965) was the second Kafr Bir'im, also Kefr Berem (كفر برعم was a Melkite Catholic Arab village in the British Mandate of Palestine. Operation Hiram, possibly also known as the Battle of Sa'sa', was a military operation conducted by the Israel Defence Force (IDF during the 1948 The village was located in an area which the Israeli forces wanted, for security reasons, populated primarily by Jews. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ On 13 November 1948 most of the inhabitants were requested to evacuated by the IDF "temporarily" in expectation of an Arab counter-attack. The villages initially sought protection in a near by cave. The then Minister of Police Bechor Shitrit on seeing the elderly, women and children living in the cave suggested that the villagers move to the town of Jish further south "until the military operations are over". Jish (الجش גִ'שׁ גּוּשׁ חָלָב Gush Halav) is an Arab town located on the northeastern slopes of Mt Archbishop Elias Chacour relates in his autobiography how IDF in the spring of 1949 rounded up all the men and older boys in the village (including his own father and three eldest brothers), and trucked them to the border with Jordan. Elias Chacour (born 1939 is the Archbishop of Galilee of the Melkite Greek Catholic Church. The Israel Defense Forces ( IDF) (צְבָא הַהֲגָנָה לְיִשְׂרָאֵל, lit Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern There they were let out and ordered to go to Jordan. The soldiers opened fire, aiming just above their heads, meaning to drive them from their homeland for good. However, Chacour's father and brothers managed to make it back three months later.
In 1953 the (by now former) inhabitants of Kafr Bir'im pleaded to the Supreme Court of Israel to allow them to return to their village. The Supreme Court ( Hebrew: בית המשפט העליון Beit haMishpat ha'Elyon) is at the head of the court system in the State of Israel. Early in September 1953 the Supreme Court decided that the authorities had to answer to why the inhabitants were not allowed to return home. The result was devastating: on September 16, 1953 the Israeli air force and army in a joint operation bombed the village until it was completely destroyed. At the same time it was announced that 1,170 hectares of land belonging to the village had been expropriated by the state. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, (Ref. given by Sabri Jiryis: "Kouetz 307 (27. Aug. 1953): 1419")
On 17 August 1950 the remaining Palestinian Arab population of Majdal were served with an expulsion order (The Palestinians had been held in a confined area since 1948) and the first group of them were taken on trucks to the Gaza Strip. Ashkelon (אַשְׁקְלוֹן ٲشكلون also عسقلان; Latin: Ascalon; Akkadian: Isqalluna is a coastal city in southern Majdal was then renamed Ashkelon by the Israelis in an on going process of de-Arabisation of the topography as described by Meron Benvenisti[84]. Egypt accepted the expelled civilian Palestinian Arabs from Majdal on humanitarian grounds as they would otherwise have been exposed to "torture and death". That however did not mean their voluntary movement. Furthermore, testimony of the expelled Arabs and reports of the Mixed Armistice Commission clearly showed that the refugees had been forcibly expelled. The Mixed Armistice Commissions (MAC An organisation for monitoring the cease fire along the lines set by the General Armistice Agreements [85]
From the statistics taken from the official records of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan/Israel Mixed Armistice Commission for the period of June 1949 through December 1952 it is found that Jordan complained of 37 instances of expulsion of Arabs from Israel. At the closing of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War a Truce ( General Armistice Agreement) was signed between Hashemite Jordan Kingdom and Israel on the 3 April 1949 the United Nations For the period 1 January 1953 through to 15 October 1953 it is found that Jordan complained of 7 instances of expulsion of Arabs from Israel involving 41 people. [86]
Ilan Pappé reports that the last gun-point expulsion occurred in 1953 where the residents of Umm al-Faraj were driven out and the village destroyed by the IDF. "[87]
In 1954 Israel "evacuated" the Palestinian villages of Baqqara and Ghannama in the central sector of the Israel/Syria demilitarized zone the Chief of Staff of the UNTSO made a report in January 1955 to the United Nations where it was decided that:-[88]
- "(a) Decides that Arab civilians who have been removed from the demilitarized zone by the Government of Israel should be permitted to return forthwith to their homes and that the Mixed Armistice Commission should supervise their return and rehabilitation in a manner to be determined by the Commission; and
- "(b) Holds that no action involving the transfer of persons across international frontiers, armistice lines or within the demilitarized zone should be under-taken without prior decision of the Chairman of the Mixed Armistice Commission. . . "
30 October 1956 When Israel attacked Egypt across the Sinai peninsula in co-ordination with an Anglo-French attack on Suez. The remainder of the Palestinians living in the DMZs were driven into Syria. The villages of Baqqara and Ghannama now lie as rubble and are empty.
The es-Sani returned to Israel
From the signing of the General Armistice Agreements in 1949, Jordan and Egypt had complained on many occasions that Israel had been reducing the Arab population of the Negeb by driving Bedouins and even Arab villagers across the cease fire lines into the Egyptian Sinai and the Jordanian held West Bank. The 1949 Armistice Agreements are a set of agreements signed during 1949 between Israel and its neighbors Egypt, Lebanon, Jordan The Negev (נֶגֶב Tiberian vocalization: Néḡeḇ) is the Desert region of southern Israel. The Bedouin, (from the Arabic (ar بدوي pl badū) are a desert-dwelling Arab Nomadic pastoralist, or previously Israel had been condemned by the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation (UNTSO) in some instances but had taken no steps to allow the return of the Arabs. UNTSO is an acronym for United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, an organization founded on 29 May 1948 for Peacekeeping in the Middle East. On 17 September 1952, the senior Jordan Military Delegate to the Mixed Armistice Commission, Major Itzaq, inform the MAC that the Israelis had expelled ten families of the es-Sani tribe and that they were now situated inside the Jordan border south of Hebron. The Mixed Armistice Commissions (MAC An organisation for monitoring the cease fire along the lines set by the General Armistice Agreements On 22 September Commander Hutchison USNR of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan/Israel Mixed Armistice Commission (HKJMAC) went into the area and counted over 100 families, nearly 1,000 members of the es-Sani tribe. At the closing of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War a Truce ( General Armistice Agreement) was signed between Hashemite Jordan Kingdom and Israel on the 3 April 1949 the United Nations Sheikh El Hajj Ibrahim informed the MAC that the es-Sani had been forced off their cultivated lands southeast of Beersheba, at El Sharia, to El Laqiya, north-east of Beersheba. On the new area at El Laqiya, for the next three years the es-Sani had made it productive to the extent that Israel then declared a quantity of their grain as surplus crop and demanded that it be sold to the Israeli government at a fixed price. The Military Governor of Beersheba, Lt. Colonel Hermann, informed Sheikh El Hajj Ibrahim that Israel was going to establish a settlement at El Laqiya and that his tribe would have to move to Tel Arad. Sheikh El Hajj Ibrahim had then led the es-Sani over the Jordan/Israel cease fire land rather that move to the inferior land around Tel Arad.
The Sheikh's story of the court action was true. On September 28, 1952, under the heading, * 'Bedouin Tribe Moved/' the Israel press announced that "Tribesmen of the Kiderat El Sana Teljaha tribe were last week moved from their former homes at El Laqiya, east of the Beersheba-Hebron road, to a new site at Tel Arad. . . . On September 15, the High Court in Jerusalem issued an order 'nisi* against the Military Governor and the Ministry of Defence against the enforced move of the tribe. "
After negotiations lasting days it was arranged for the es-Sani to return to Israel; although the Israelis wanted the es-Sani transported inside Jordan to a point opposite and closer to Tel Arad which the Jordanians refused to do this and it was finally settled that the transfer would be made at the original point of crossing, on the Hebron-Beersheba road. [89]
Contemporary mediation and the Lausanne Conference
UN mediation
The United Nations using the offices of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organisation and the Mixed Armistice Commissions was involved in the conflict from the very beginning. UNTSO is an acronym for United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, an organization founded on 29 May 1948 for Peacekeeping in the Middle East. The Mixed Armistice Commissions (MAC An organisation for monitoring the cease fire along the lines set by the General Armistice Agreements In the autumn of 1948 the refugee problem was a fact and possible solutions were discussed. Count Folke Bernadotte said on September 16:
- No settlement can be just and complete if recognition is not accorded to the right of the Arab refugee to return to the home from which he has been dislodged. Events 1400 - Owain Glyndŵr is declared Prince of Wales by his followers It would be an offence against the principles of elemental justice if these innocent victims of the conflict were denied the right to return to their homes while Jewish immigrants flow into Palestine, and indeed, offer the threat of permanent replacement of the Arab refugees who have been rooted in the land for centuries[90] (Bowker, 2003, pp. 97-98).
UN General Assembly Resolution 194, which was passed on December 11, 1948, and reaffirmed every year since, was the first resolution that called for Israel to let the refugees return:
- the refugees wishing to return to their homes and live at peace with their neighbours should be permitted to do so at the earliest practicable date, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those choosing not to return and for loss of or damage to property which, under principles of international law or in equity, should be made good by the Governments or authorities responsible. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194 was passed on December 11 1948, near the end of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [91]
The Lausanne Conference of 1949
In 1949 at the Lausanne conference, Israel proposed allowing 100,000 refugees to return. The Lausanne Conference 1949 was convened by the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine (UNCCP from 27 April to 12 September, 1949 The Lausanne Conference 1949 was convened by the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine (UNCCP from 27 April to 12 September, 1949 The offer implicitly included an alleged 25,000 who had already returned surreptitiously and 10,000 projected family-reunion cases and would allow Israel to resettle the returnees where it saw fit. [92] It was further conditional on a full peace treaty that would allow Israel to keep all the territory it had captured and on the Arab states agreeing to absorb the remaining refugees.
Safran wrote that "The Arab states, who had refused even to negotiate face-to-face with the Israelis, turned down the offer because it implicitly recognized Israel's existence". [93]
Morris, however, in a more differentiated analysis, resumes:
- In retrospect, it appeared that at Lausanne was lost the best and perhaps only chance for a solution of the refugee problem, if not for the achievement of a comprehensive Middle East settlement. But the basic incompatibility of the initial starting positions and the unwillingness of the two sides to move, and to move quickly, towards a compromise - born of Arab rejectionism and a deep feeling of humiliation, and of Israeli drunkenness with victory and physical needs determined largely by the Jewish refugee influx - doomed the 'conference' from the start. American pressure on both sides, lacking a sharp, determined cutting edge, failed to budge sufficiently either Jew or Arab. The '100,000 Offer' was a classic of too little, too late. [94]
Gallery of photos of Palestinians Exodus(Nakba)
 Grandmother cries over grandson, Nakba 1948. |  Palestinan mother Nakba 1948. |  Palestinian watch over a school in a refugee camp 1948 |  Makeshift school for Palestinian refugees. |
 Palestinian woman a baby and a jug, Nakba. |  Refugees in the open Nakba 1948. |
Debate on the causes of the Palestinian exodus
Initial positions
In the first decades after the exodus two diametrically opposed schools of analysis could be distinguished. The causes and explanations of the exodus of Palestinian Arabs that arose during the 1947-1948 Civil War in Mandatory Palestine and the 1948 Arab-Israeli War In the words of Erskine Childers:[95] ‘Israel claims that the Arabs left because they were ordered to, and deliberately incited into panic, by their own leaders who wanted the field cleared for the 1948 war’, while ‘The Arabs charge that their people were evicted at bayonet-point and by panic deliberately incited by the Zionists. Erskine Childers may refer to Robert Erskine Childers (1870&ndash1922 author and Irish nationalist who served as secretary-general of the Irish delegation ’ Alternative explanations had also been offered. For instance Peretz[96] and Gabbay[97] emphasize the psychological component: panic or hysteria swept the Palestinians and caused the exodus.
Changes after the advent of the New historians
In the 1980s Israel opened up part of its archives for investigation by historians. This coincided with the emergence of various Israeli historians, called New Historians, who favored a more critical analysis of Israel's history. The New Historians are a loosely-defined group of Israeli historians who have published histories of expulsions of Palestinians by Israel in 1948 expropriations of Palestinian property One of them, Morris, concludes that Jewish military attacks were the main direct cause of the exodus, followed by Arab fear due to the fall of a nearby town, Arab fear of impending attack, and expulsions. The traditional Israeli version was replaced by a new version: the exodus was caused by neither Israeli nor Arab policies, but rather was a by-product of the 1948 Arab Israeli War. [98][99] The Arab version hardly changed[100] but did get support from some of the New Historians. The New Historians are a loosely-defined group of Israeli historians who have published histories of expulsions of Palestinians by Israel in 1948 expropriations of Palestinian property Pappé calls the exodus an ethnic cleansing and points at Zionist preparations in the preceding years and provides more details on the planning process by a group he calls the ‘Consultancy’. [101]
Results of the Exodus
Abandoned, evacuated and destroyed Palestinian localities
Several authors have conducted studies on the number of Palestinian localities which were abandoned, evacuated and/or destroyed during the 1947-1949 period. Based on their respective calculations, the table below summarises their information. [102]
| Reference | Towns | Villages | Tribes | Total |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Morris | 10 | 342 | 17 | 369 |
| Khalidi | 1 | 400 | 17 | 418 |
| Abu Sitta | 13 | 419 | 99 | 531 |
Source: The table data was taken from Ruling Palestine, A History of the Legally Sanctioned Jewish-Israeli Seizure of Land and Housing in Palestine. Publishers: COHRE & BADIL, May 2005, p. The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE is a Geneva -based international non-governmental human rights organisation founded in 1994 by Scott Leckie 34.
Note: For information on methodologies; see: Morris, Benny (1987): The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem, 1947-1949. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987; Khalidi, Walid (ed. ): All that Remains. The Palestinian Villages Occupied and Depopulated by Israel in 1948. Washington, D. C: Institute for Palestine Studies, 1992, App. IV, pp. xix, 585-586; and Sitta, Salman Abu: The Palestinian Nakba 1948. London: The Palestinian Return Centre, 2000.
According to COHRE and BADIL, Morris’s list of affected localities, the shortest of the three, includes towns but excludes other localities cited by Khalidi and/or Abu Sitta. The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE is a Geneva -based international non-governmental human rights organisation founded in 1994 by Scott Leckie The six sources compared in Khalidi’s study have in common 296 of the villages listed as destroyed and/or depopulated. Sixty other villages are cited in all but one source. Of the total of 418 localities cited in Khalidi, 292 (70 percent) were completely destroyed and 90 (22 percent) “largely destroyed”. COHRE and BADIL also note that other sources refer to an additional 151 localities that are omitted from Khalidi's study for various reasons (for example, major cities and towns that were depopulated, as well as some Bedouin encampments and villages ‘vacated’ before the start of hostilities). The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE is a Geneva -based international non-governmental human rights organisation founded in 1994 by Scott Leckie Abu Sitta’s list includes tribes in Beersheba that lost lands; most of these were omitted from Khalidi’s work. [103]
Another study, involving field research and comparisons with British and other documents, concludes that 472 Palestinian habitations (including towns and villages) were destroyed in 1948. It notes that the devastation was virtually complete in some sub-districts. For example, it points out that 96. 0% of the villages in the Jaffa area were totally destroyed, as were 90. 0% of those in Tiberiade, 90. 3% of those in Safad, and 95. 9% of those in Beisan. It also extrapolates from 1931 British census data to estimate that over 70 280 Palestinian houses were destroyed in this period. [104]
In another study, Abu Sitta[105] shows the following findings in eight distinct phases of the depopulation of Palestine between 1947-1949. His findings are summarized in the table below:
| Phase: | No. of destroyed/depopulated localities | No. of refugees | Jewish/Israeli lands (km2) |
|---|---|---|---|
| 29 Nov. 1947 - Mar. 1948 | 30 | >22. 600* | 1. 159'4 |
| Apr. - 13 May 1948 (Tiberiade, Jaffa, Haifa, Safed, etc. ) | 199 | >400. 000 | 3. 363'9 |
| 15 May - 11 June 1948 (an additional 90 villages) | 290 | >500. 000 | 3. 943'1 |
| 12 June - 18 July 1948 (Lydda/Ramleh, Nazareth, etc. ) | 378 | >628. 000 | 5. 224'2 |
| 19 July - 24 Oct. 1948 (Galilee and southern areas) | 418 | >664. 000 | 7. 719'6 |
| 24 Oct. - 5 Nov. 1948 (Galilee, etc. ) | 465 | >730. 000 | 10. 099'6 |
| 5 Nov. 1948 - 18 Jan. 1949 (Negev, etc. ) | 481 | >754. 000 | 12. 366'3 |
| 19 Jan. - 20 July 1949 (Negev, etc. ) | 531 | >804. 000 | 20. 350'0 |
* Other sources put this figure at over 70 000.
Source: The table data was taken from Ruling Palestine, A History of the Legally Sanctioned Jewish-Israeli Seizure of Land and Housing in Palestine. Publishers: COHRE & BADIL, May 2005, p. The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE is a Geneva -based international non-governmental human rights organisation founded in 1994 by Scott Leckie 34. The source being: Abu Sitta, Salman (2001): From Refugees to Citizens at Home. London: Palestine Land Society and Palestinian Return Centre, 2001.
Palestinian refugees
| Palestinian refugees |
|---|
| Total population |
4. 9 million (including descendants and re-settled)[106] |
| Regions with significant populations |
| Gaza Strip, Jordan, West Bank, Lebanon, Syria |
| Languages |
| Arabic |
| Religions |
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Although there is no accepted definition of who can be considered a Palestinian refugee for legal purposes, UNRWA defines them as 'persons whose normal place of residence was Palestine between June 1946 and May 1948, who lost both their homes and means of livelihood as a result of the 1948 Arab-Israeli conflict'. The Gaza Strip (قطاع غزة, רצועת עזה Retzu'at 'Azza) is a coastal strip of land along the Mediterranean Sea, bordering Egypt on the south-west Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern The West Bank (الضفة الغربية, הגדה המערבית Hagadah Hamaaravit) also referred to in Israel as " Judea and Samaria Lebanon (ˈlɛbənɒn Arabic: ar لبنان Lubnān) officially the Republic of Lebanon or Lebanese Republic (ar الجمهورية اللبنانية Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East ( UNRWA) is a relief and human development agency providing education health care social services UNRWA's definition of a refugee also covers the descendants of persons who became refugees in 1948. This comes in contrast to the standard definition of refugee as defined by UNHCR. According to the 1951 Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, a refugee is a person who owing to a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons of race Headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR (established December 14, 1950) is a The final UN estimate was 711,000,[4] but by 1950, according to UNRWA, the number of registered refugees was 914,000. [107] The U. N. Conciliation Commission explains that these numbers are inflated by "duplication of ration cards, addition of persons who have been displaced from area other than Israel-held areas and of persons who, although not displaced, are destitute," and the UNWRA additionally noted that "all births are eagerly announced, the deaths wherever possible are passed over in silence", as well as the fact that "the birthrate is high in any case, a net addition of 30,000 names a year. " By June, 1951 the UNWRA had reduced the number of registered refugees to 876,000 after "many false and duplicate registrations [were] weeded out". [108] Today that number has grown to over 4 million, one third of whom live in the West Bank and Gaza; slightly less than one third in Jordan; 17% in Syria and Lebanon (Bowker, 2003, p. 72) and around 15% in other Arab and Western countries. Approximately 1 million refugees have no form of identification other than an UNRWA identification card. [109]
The Prevention of Infiltration law
Following the emergence of the Palestinian refugee problem after the 1948 Arab-Israeli war, many Palestinians tried, in one way or another, to return to their homes. The Prevention of Infiltration Law is an Israeli law enacted in 1954. For some time these practices continued to embarrass the Israeli authorities until finally they passed a law forbidding Palestinians to return to Israel, those who did so being regarded as "infiltrators". Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society [110]
According to Kirsbaum[111] over the years, the Israeli Government has continued to cancel and modify some of the Defence (Emergency) Regulations of 1945, but mostly it has added more as it has continued to extend its declared state of emergency. Land and Property laws in Israel refers to the legal framework governing land and property issues in Israel. For example, even though the Prevention of Infiltration Law of 1954 is not labelled as an official "Emergency Regulation", it extends the applicability of the Defence (Emergency) Regulation 112 of 1945 giving the Minister of Defence extraordinary powers of deportation for accused infiltrators even before they are convicted (Articles 30 & 32), and makes itself subject to cancellation when the Knesset ends the State of Emergency upon which all of the Emergency Regulations are dependent. For Beit Knesset a Jewish Place of worship, see Synagogue. The Knesset (כנסת lit A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend certain normal functions of government alert citizens to alter their normal behaviors or order government agencies
Land and Property laws
Following its establishment, Israel designed a system of law that legitimised both a continuation and a consolidation of the nationalisation of land and property, a process that it had begun decades earlier. The Israeli Declaration of Independence (הכרזת העצמאות Hakhrazat HaAtzma'ut or מגילת העצמאות Megilat HaAtzma'ut) made on 14 May Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government For the first few years of Israel’s existence, many of the new laws continued to be rooted in earlier Ottoman and British law. Note The following is concerned with Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire it does not discuss the role of importance of and characteristics of Islam in The United Kingdom has three Legal systems. English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law, which applies in These laws were later amended or replaced altogether.
The first challenge facing Israel was to transform its control over land into legal ownership. This was the motivation underlying the passing of several of the first group of land laws. [112].
Initial 'Emergency Laws' and 'Regulations'
Among the more important initial laws was article 125 of the Defence (Emergency) Regulations [113]
According to Kirshbaum, the Law has as effect that "no one is allowed in or out without permission from the Israeli Military". "This regulation has been used to exclude a land owner from his own land so that it could be judged as unoccupied, and then expropriated under the Land Acquisition (Validation of Acts and Compensation) Law (1953). Closures need not be published in the Official Gazette". [114]
The Absentees' Property Law'
The Absentees’ Property Laws were several laws, first introduced as emergency ordinances issued by the Jewish leadership but which after the war were incorporated into the laws of Israel. [115] As examples of the first type of laws are the Emergency Regulations (Absentees’ Property) Law, 5709-1948 (December) which according to article 37 of the Absentees Property Law, 5710-1950 was replaced by the latter;[116] the Emergency Regulations (Requisition of Property) Law, 5709-1949, and other related laws. [117]
According to COHRE and BADIL (p. 41), unlike other laws that were designed to establish Israel’s ‘legal’ control over lands, this body of law focused on formulating a ‘legal’ definition for the people (mostly Arabs) who had left or been forced to flee from these lands.
The absentee property played an enormous role in making Israel a viable state. In 1954, more than one third of Israel's Jewish population lived on absentee property and nearly a third of the new immigrants (250,000 people) settled in urban areas abandoned by Arabs. Of 370 new Jewish settlements established between 1948 and 1953, 350 were on absentee property. [118]
Laws enacted
That enabled the further acquisition of depopulated lands, and related laws. Among the more important regulations were:
- The Land (Acquisition for Public Purposes) Ordinance (1943). To authorise the confiscation of lands for Government and ‘public’ purposes.
- The Prescription Law, 5718-1958. [119] According to COHRE and BADIL (p. 44), this law, in conjunction with the Land (Settlement of Title) Ordinance (Amendment) Law, 5720-1960, the Land (Settlement of Title) Ordinance (New Version), 5729-1969 and the Land Law, 5729-1969, was designed to revise criteria related to the use and registration of Miri lands – one of the most prevalent types in Palestine – and to facilitate Israel’s acquisition of such land.
Films about the exodus
- 500 Dunam on the Moon Is a documentary film Directed by Rachel Leah Jones, about Ayn Hawd a Palestinian village that was captured and depopulated by Israeli forces in the 1948 war. 500 Dunam on the Moon is a 2002 documentary film directed by Israeli director Rachel Leah Jones about Ayn Hawd a Palestinian village that was captured and depopulated by Israeli
- The Palestinian Catastrophe 1948 is a documentary film Benny Brunner and Alexandra Jansse, that follows the tragic events surrounding the creation of the Palestinian refugee problem. The Palestinian Catastrophe 1948 (al-Nakba is a documentary film of Benny Brunner and Alexandra Jansse that follows the events surrounding the 1948 Palestinian exodus
- The Sons of Eilaboun is a documentary film by the Palestinian artist and film maker Hisham Zreiq (Zrake), The film is about the Nakba in Eilaboun, that tells the story of one of the massacres committed by the newly formed Israeli army during Operation Hiram.
The Nakba's role in the Palestinian narrative
The term "Nakba" as a euphemism for "disaster" or "catastrophe" first appeared in George Antonius' The Arab Awakening, published in 1938, before the creation of the State of Israel. Naji Salim al-Ali (c 1938 - 29 August 1987) was a Palestinian cartoonist, noted for the political criticism of Israel in his works George Habib Antonius, CBE (hon (1891-1941 (جورج أنطونيوس was one of the first historians of Arab nationalism. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. On page 312, Antonius writes,
“The year 1920 has an evil name in Arab annals: it is referred to as the Year of the Catastrophe (Am al-Nakba). It saw the first armed risings that occurred in protest against the post-War settlement imposed by the Allies on the Arab countries. In that year, serious outbreaks took place in Syria, Palestine, and Iraq. ”
Thus, this early "Nakba" was a response to the division of Arab-populated lands into British and French mandates, and the Balfour Declaration promoting an independent Jewish state. The Palestine Mandate, was a set of protocols or articles that formed a multilateral legal and administrative agreement The French Mandate of Syria was a League of Nations Mandate created after the First World War and the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire. [120]
The term "Nakba" was given its present meaning by Constantin Zureiq, a professor of history at the American University of Beirut, in his 1948 book Ma'na al-Nakba (The Meaning of the Disaster). Constantin Zureiq (قسطنطين زريق (born Damascus 1909-2000 a prominent Arab intellectual and academic was one of the pioneering theorists of modern The American University of Beirut (AUB الجامعة الأميركية في بيروت is a private independent University in Beirut, Lebanon. After the Six Day War in 1967 Zureiq wrote another book, The New Meaning of the Disaster, but the term Nakba is reserved for the 1948 war. Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt
Together with Naji al-Ali's Handala (the barefoot child always drawn from behind), and the symbolic key for the house in Palestine carried by so many Palestinian refugees, the 'collective memory of' the Nakba 'has shaped the identity of the Palestinian refugees as a people'. Naji Salim al-Ali (c 1938 - 29 August 1987) was a Palestinian cartoonist, noted for the political criticism of Israel in his works Naji Salim al-Ali (c 1938 - 29 August 1987) was a Palestinian cartoonist, noted for the political criticism of Israel in his works Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. [121]
The events of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War greatly influenced the Palestinian culture. Palestinian people or Palestinians ( الشعب الفلسطيني, ash-sha`b al-filasTīni; الفلسطينيون, al-filasTīnīyyūn Countless books, songs and poems have been written about the Nakba. The exodus is usually described in strongly emotional terms. For example, at the controversial 2001 World Conference Against Racism in Durban, prominent Palestinian scholar and activist Hanan Ashrawi referred to the Palestinians as "a nation in captivity held hostage to an ongoing Nakba, as the most intricate and pervasive expression of persistent colonialism, apartheid, racism, and victimization. The World Conference against Racism ( WCAR) are international events organized by the UNESCO in order to struggle against racism ideologies and behaviours Durban (eThekwini is the third most populous city in South Africa, forming part of the EThekwini metropolitan municipality. Hanan Daoud Khalil Ashrawi (b October 8 1946 is a Palestinian legislator human rights activist and scholar "
In the Palestinian calendar, the day after Israel declared independence (May 15) is observed as Nakba Day. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Nakba Day ( Arabic يوم النكبة yawm al-nakba — 15 May) meaning "day of the catastrophe" is an annual day of commemoration for the It is traditionally observed as an important day of remembrance. [122]
Notes
- ^ A History of the Modern Middle East by William L. Cleaveland, 2004, p. 270 The term "Nakba" emerged after an influential Arab commentary on the self-examination of the social and political bases of Arab life in the wake of the 1948 War by Constantine Zureiq. Constantin Zureiq (قسطنطين زريق (born Damascus 1909-2000 a prominent Arab intellectual and academic was one of the pioneering theorists of modern (Prior to that, the term had more commonly referred to the 1920 Battle of Maysalun, in which France invaded Syria and deposed Arab Revolt leader King Faisal I. The Battle of Maysalun, also called The Battle of Maysalun Pass, took place between Syrian and French forces about 12 miles west of Damascus The Arab Revolt (1916&ndash1918 ( الثورة العربية Al-Thawra al-`Arabīya) was initiated by the Sherif Hussein ibn Ali with the aim of securing ) The term became quite popular and widespread that it made the term "disaster" synonymous with the Arab defeat in that war.
- ^ Avi Shlaim 2000 p. 31. Benny Morris 2004. Tom Segev 1998 p 28. Ilan Pappé 2006. Ilan Pappé 1992 pp 87-101. Norman G Finkelstein 2003 pp 51- 87. Walid Khalidi 1992. Walid Khalidi, (November 1961). Uri Milstein 1998. All of the above Historians in their various books argue that the atrocities (Deir Yassin Tantura Dawayima etc. The Deir Yassin massacre was the killing of between 107 and 120 villagers the estimate generally accepted by scholars during and possibly after the battle at the village of On October 28 1948, the Arab town Al-Dawayima (also spelt Dawaymeh was conquered during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war by the 89th Commando Battalion which ) are an established fact.
- ^ Eugene L. Rogan and Avi Shlaim 2007 p. 38
- ^ a b United Nations General Assembly (1951-08-23). Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire General Progress Report and Supplementary Report of the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine (OpenDocument). Retrieved on 2007-05-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João
- ^ UNRWA Doc. UNRWA estimate 4. 25 Millions in 2005
- ^ Erskine Childers, ‘The Other Exodus’, The Spectator, May 12, 1961 reprinted in Walter Laqueur (ed. For other uses see Spectator. The Spectator is a weekly British Magazine first published on 6 July Walter Zeev Laqueur (born 26 May 1921) is an American historian and political commentator ) The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict,(1969) rev. ed. Pelican Books 1970 pp. 179-188 p. 183
- ^ Eugene L Rogan and Avi Shlaim 2007 p. 38
- ^ Reported by Philip Mendes, A historical controversy : the causes of the Palestinian refugee problem; retrieved from the Australian Jewish Democratic Society website on 1 November 2007.
- ^ Reported by Philip Mendes, A historical controversy : the causes of the Palestinian refugee problem; retrieved from the Australian Jewish Democratic Society website on 1 November 2007.
- ^ B. Morris 2004 pp. 5-7,pp. 38-64,pp. 462-587
- ^ B. Morris, 'Response to Finkelstein and Masalha', J. Palestine Studies 21(1), p. 98-114
- ^ Ilan Pappe (2007)
- ^ UN Doc A/648 Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine Submitted to the Secretary-General for Transmission to the Members of the United Nations
- ^ United Nation Conciliation Commission for Palestine Technical committee Report Submitted by the Arab Refugee Congress UN Doc. Com Tech/W.3
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 90-99
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 65
- ^ Flapan, 1987, p. 95; also quoted by Finkelstein, 1995, p. 82
- ^ Morris, (2004), p. 76
- ^ Morris, (2004) p. 76, 125
- ^ Morris, (2004) p. 66
- ^ (Gelber, p. 75)
- ^ (Gelber, p. 76)
- ^ (Gelber, p. 79)
- ^ Morris, 2004, pp. 99-125
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 138
- ^ Ilan Pappé, 2006, p. 82
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 67
- ^ (Glazer, p. 104)
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 134
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 137, quoting Haganah Archive (HA) 105\257)
- ^ Morris, 2004, pp. 68-86
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 75
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 76
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 130
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 125
- ^ Ilan Pappé, 2006, p. 55
- ^ Ilan Pappé, 2006, p. 73
- ^ Pappé, 2006, p. 56
- ^ Ilan Pappé, 2006, p. 60
- ^ Pappé, 2006, p. 63
- ^ Ilan Pappé, 2006, p. 82
- ^ Ilan Pappé, 2006, p. 82
- ^ Morris, 2004 p. 86
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 87
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 75
- ^ Morris, 2004, pp. 138, 139
- ^ Glazer 1980, p. 109
- ^ UN Progress Report, September 16, 1948, Part 1 Section V, paragraph 6; Part 3 Section I, paragraph 1 to 3;. According to Glazer, this observation by Count Folke Bernadotte is frequently cited not only as an example of descriptions of panic, but also as evidence that the Zionists pursued a policy of expulsion.
- ^ UN Doc. a/648 Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine Submitted to the Secretary-General for Transmission to the Members of the United Nations Part 1 Section V para 6. It is not yet known what the policy of the Provisional Government of Israel with regard to the return of Arab refugees will be when the final terms of settlement are reached. It is, however, undeniable that no settlement can be just and complete if recognition is not accorded to the right of the Arab refugee to return to the home from which he has been dislodged by the hazards and strategy of the armed conflict between Arabs and Jews in Palestine. The majority of these refugees have come from territory which, under the Assembly resolution of 29 November, was to be included in the Jewish State. The exodus of Palestinian Arabs resulted from panic created by fighting in their communities, by rumours concerning real or alleged acts of terrorism, or expulsion. It would be an offence against the principles of elemental justice if these innocent victims of the conflict were denied the right to return to their homes while Jewish immigrants flow into Palestine, and, indeed, at least offer the threat of permanent replacement of the Arab refugees who have been rooted in the land for centuries.
- ^ “Survival of the Fittest”Avi Shavit Interview with Benny Morris - 01. 11. 04
- ^ Howard M. Sachar. A History of Israel from the Rise of Zionism to Our Time. Published by Alfred A. Knopf. New York. 1976. p. 332. ISBN 0-394-48564-5
- ^ Morris 2004, p. 264
- ^ Nakbat Haifa: Collapse and Dispersion of a Major Palestinian Community, E. Karsh, Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 37, Number 4/October 01, 2001
- ^ British Police Report: Arab Flight From Haifa
- ^ Situation in Haifa. Report by John Fletcher-Cooke to UN Secretary-General 22nd April 1948.
- ^ Morris, 2004, pp. 191, 200
- ^ Ilan Pappé, 2006, p. 96
- ^ 'British Proclamation In Haifa Making Evacuation Secure', The Times, Thursday, April 22, 1948; pg. Events 1500 - Portuguese Navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral becomes the first European to sight Brazil. 4; Issue 51052; col D
- ^ Morris 2004, pp. 191, 192
- ^ Morris 2004, pp. 209-211
- ^ Avnery, Uri (1971): Israel Without Zionism: A Plan for Peace in the Middle East. New York: Collier Books, pp. 224-25.
- ^ O'Ballance, Edgar (1956) pp. 147, 172.
- ^ Benny Morris (2004) p. 246; Summary meeting of the Arab Affairs Advisor in Netanya 9 May 1948 IDF 6127/49//109
- ^ Ilan Pappé (2006) p. 128.
- ^ Benny Morris (2004) p. 247 unsigned short report on Tantura Operation, IDFA 922/75//949, and ya’akov B. ’, in the name of the deputy OC ‘A’ company ‘Report on Operation Namal’ 26 May 1948, IDFA 6647/49//13.
- ^ Benny Morris (2004). Shitrit to Ben-Gurion 31 May 1948 ISA MAM 302/48.
- ^ Morris 2006, p. 262
- ^ Quoted in Mark Tessler's A History of the Arab-Israeli Conflict: Keesing's Contemporary Archives (London: Keesing's Publications, 1948-1973). p. 10101.
- ^ Kapeliouk, Amnon (1987): New Light on the Israeli-Arab Conflict and the Refugee Problem and Its Origins, p. 21. Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 16, No. 3. (Spring, 1987), pp. 16-24.
- ^ Review by Dominique Vidal in Le Monde Diplomatique
- ^ Morris, Benny (1986): What Happened in History. Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 15, No. 4. (Summer, 1986), pp. 181-182.
- ^ Oren, Elhanan (1976): On the Way to the City. Hebrew, Tel Aviv.
- ^ Ibid.
- ^ Peretz Kidron interview with Ben Dunkelman, Haolam Hazeh, 9 January 1980.
- ^ Kidron, Peretz (1988). Truth Whereby Nations Live. In Edward Said and Christopher Hitchens (Eds. Edward Wadie Saïd MRSL ( إدوارد وديع سعيد,; 1 November 1935 &ndash 25 September Christopher Eric Hitchens (born April 13, 1949) is a British Author, Journalist, Literary critic and American ). Blaming the Victims: Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question Verso. Blaming the Victims Spurious Scholarship and the Palestinian Question, is a collection of Essays co-edited by Edward Said and Christopher Hitchens ISBN 1-85984-340-9, p. 87.
- ^ Ari Shavit - Survival Of The Fittest? An Interview With Benny Morris: Logos Winter 2004
- ^ (Morris, 2004, p. 448)
- ^ Morris, 2004, p. 490
- ^ UN Doc. PAL/370 UN Press Release dated 6 November 1948
- ^ Morris (2004), p. 492
- ^ Ilan Pappe (Spring 2006). Spring is one of the four Temperate Seasons Spring marks the transition from Winter into Summer. Calling a Spade a Spade: The 1948 Ethnic Cleansing of Palestine (HTML). Retrieved on 2007-05-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João
- ^ Ilan Pappé 2006 p. 221
- ^ UN Doc. IS/33 2 August 1948Text of a statement made by Moshe Sharett on 1 August 1948
- ^ Meron Benvenisti 2000
- ^ Yearbook of the United Nations 1950
- ^ UN Doc S/PV.630 of 27 October 1953 Report of Major General Vagn Bennike, Chief of Staff of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine to the United Nations Security Council
- ^ Ilan Pappé 2006 p. UNTSO is an acronym for United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, an organization founded on 29 May 1948 for Peacekeeping in the Middle East. 220
- ^ UN Doc S/3343 of 11 January 1955 Report dated 6 January 1955 by the Chief of Staff of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine to the Secretary-General on complaints concerning the observance of the General Armistice Agreement between Israel and Syria
- ^ Violent Truce by E H Hutchison A Military Observer Looks at the Arab-Israeli Conflict 1951 1955
- ^ UN Doc A/648 Progress Report of the United Nations Mediator on Palestine Submitted to the Secretary-General for Transmission to the Members of the United Nations see part 1 section V para 6
- ^ United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194. UNTSO is an acronym for United Nations Truce Supervision Organization, an organization founded on 29 May 1948 for Peacekeeping in the Middle East. United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194 was passed on December 11 1948, near the end of the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. United Nations General Assembly (December 11, 1948). Membership For two articles dealing with membership in the General Assembly see General Assembly members Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1948 ( MCMXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the 1948 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 2007-05-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1218 - The Fifth Crusade leaves Acre for Egypt. 1276 - Magnus Ladulås is crowned
- ^ Morris 2006, p. 578
- ^ Nadav Safran, Israel: The Embattled Ally, Harvard University Press, p 336.
- ^ Morris 2006, p. 580
- ^ Erskine Childers, ‘The Other Exodus’, The Spectator, May 12, 1961 reprinted in Walter Laqueur (ed. For other uses see Spectator. The Spectator is a weekly British Magazine first published on 6 July Walter Zeev Laqueur (born 26 May 1921) is an American historian and political commentator ) The Israel-Arab Reader: A Documentary History of the Middle East Conflict,(1969) rev. ed. Pelican Books 1970 pp. 179-188 p. 183
- ^ Reported by Philip Mendes, A historical controversy: the causes of the Palestinian refugee problem; retrieved from the Australian Jewish Democratic Society website on 1 November 2007.
- ^ Reported by Philip Mendes, A historical controversy : the causes of the Palestinian refugee problem; retrieved from the Australian Jewish Democratic Society website on 1 November 2007.
- ^ B. Morris, 2004 pp. 5-7,pp. 38-64,pp. 462-587
- ^ B. Morris, 'Response to Finkelstein and Masalha', J. Palestine Studies 21(1), p. 98-114
- ^ Khalidi, Walid (1961).
- ^ Ilan. Pappé, (2006)
- ^ Ruling Palestine, A History of the Legally Sanctioned Jewish-Israeli Seizure of Land and Housing in Palestine. Publishers: COHRE & BADIL, May 2005, p. The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE is a Geneva -based international non-governmental human rights organisation founded in 1994 by Scott Leckie 34.
- ^ Ruling Palestine, A History of the Legally Sanctioned Jewish-Israeli Seizure of Land and Housing in Palestine. Publishers: COHRE & BADIL, May 2005, p. The Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE is a Geneva -based international non-governmental human rights organisation founded in 1994 by Scott Leckie 35.
- ^ Saleh, Abdul Jawad and Walid Mustafa (1987): p. 30.
- ^ Abu Sitta, Salman (2001).
- ^ http://www.un.org/unrwa/publications/pdf/rr_countryandarea.pdf Refugees Per Country & Area; 2005
- ^ Who is a Palestine Refugee? UNRWA 's operational definition
- ^ Assistance To Palestine Refugees UN Doc A/1905Report of the Director of the UNRWA, 28 September 1951
- ^ (Bowker, 2003, pp. Events 48 BC - Pompey the Great is assassinated on orders of King Ptolemy of Egypt after landing in Egypt. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January 61-62)
- ^ Jiryis, Sabri (1981): Domination by the Law. Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 11, No. 1, 10th Anniversary Issue: Palestinians under Occupation. (Autumn, 1981), pp. 67-92.
- ^ Kirshbaum, David A. Israeli Emergency Regulations and The Defense (Emergency) Regulations of 1945. Israel Law Resource Center, February, 2007.
- ^ Ruling Palestine, A History of the Legally Sanctioned Jewish-Israeli Seizure of Land and Housing in Palestine Publishers: COHRE & BADIL, May 2005, p. 37.
- ^ geocities.comIsraeli Emergency Regulations & The Defense (Emergency) Regulations of 1945 by David A. Kirshbaum
- ^ Kirshbaum, David A. Israeli Emergency Regulations and The Defense (Emergency) Regulations of 1945. Israel Law Resource Center, February, 2007.
- ^ Absentees' Property Law (1950)
- ^ See article 37 Absentees' Property Law 5710-1950
- ^ Ruling Palestine, A History of the Legally Sanctioned Jewish-Israeli Seizure of Land and Housing in Palestine. Publishers: COHRE & BADIL, May 2005, p. 41.
- ^ Peretz, (1958)
- ^ Prescription Law (1958)
- ^ Plaut, Steven "How 'Nakba' Proves There's No Palestinian Nation" Jewish Press 4/30/2008
- ^ (Bowker, 2003, p. 96)
- ^ (Bowker, 2003, p. 96)
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- Arzt, Donna E. (1997). Refugees into Citizens: Palestinians and the End of the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Council on Foreign Relations. ISBN 0-87609-194-X
- Atiyah, Edward Selim, (1958) The Arabs, London, Penguin Books,
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- Bowker, Robert (2003). Palestinian Refugees: Mythology, Identity, and the Search for Peace. Lynne Rienner Publishers. ISBN 1-58826-202-2
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- Dershowitz, Alan (2003). Alan Morton Dershowitz (born September 1, 1938) is an American Lawyer, Jurist, and political commentator. The Case for Israel. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. ISBN 0-471-67962-6.
- Finkelstein, Norman (2003). Norman Gary Finkelstein (born December 8, 1953) is an American political scientist and author whose primary fields of research are the Image and Reality of the Israel-Palestine Conflict, 2nd Ed. Verso. ISBN 1-85984-442-1
- Fischbach, Michael R. (2003). Records of Dispossession: Palestinian Refugee Property and the Arab-Israeli Conflict. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-12978-5
- Flapan, Simha (1987) “The Birth of Israel: Myths and Realities” Published by Pantheon ISBN-10: 039455888X ISBN-13: 978-0394558882
- Gelber, Yoav (2006). Palestine 1948. War, Escape and the Emergence of the Palestinian Refugee Problem. Sussex Acadam Press. ISBN 1-84519-075-0.
- Glazer, Steven (1980): The Palestinian Exodus in 1948. Journal of Palestine Studies, Vol. 9, No. 4. (Summer, 1980), pp. 96-118.
- Kanaaneh, Rhoda A. (2002). Birthing the Nation: Strategies of Palestinian Women in Israel. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22944-4.
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See also
- Arab diaspora
- 1948 Palestine war
- 1947-48 Palestinian civil war
- 1948 Arab-Israeli war
- 1967 Palestinian exodus
- Eilaboun massacre
- History of Palestine#Post-Mandate
- Jewish exodus from Arab lands
- Jewish refugees
- List of villages depopulated during the 1948 Arab-Israeli war
- New Historians
- Palestinian infiltration
- Palestinian refugee
- Palestinian Chilean
- Plan Dalet
- Ethnic cleansing
- Prevention of Infiltration Law
- Land and Property laws in Israel
- Expulsion of Germans after World War II (contemporary "exodus", executed 1944 - 1950)
External links
- The Peel Commission Report from the United Nations
- UN report on pre-war non-Jewish population
- The sons of Eilaboun - Official website
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